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Title: The Mind of the Child, Part II
       The Development of the Intellect, International Education
       Series Edited By William T. Harris, Volume IX.

Author: W. Preyer

Translator: H.W. Brown

Release Date: January 20, 2007 [EBook #19549]
[Original date of release: October 16, 2006]

Language: English

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International Education Series

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_INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES_

THE MIND OF THE CHILD
PART II

THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE INTELLECT

_OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING
THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING
IN THE FIRST YEARS OF LIFE_

BY
W. PREYER
PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN JENA

TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN
BY H. W. BROWN
TEACHER IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT WORCESTER, MASS.

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1895




COPYRIGHT, 1889,
BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.




EDITOR'S PREFACE.

This second volume contains the further investigations of Professor
Preyer on the mind of the child. The former volume contained the first
and second portions, devoted respectively to the development of the
senses and of the will. The present volume contains the third part,
treating of the development of the intellect; and three appendixes are
added containing supplementary matter.

Professor Preyer considers that the development of the power of using
language is the most prominent index to the unfolding of the intellect.
He differs with Professor Max Müller, however, on the question whether
the operation of thinking can be carried on without the use of words
(see the recent elaborate work of the latter on "The Science of
Thought").

At my suggestion, the painstaking translator of this book has prepared
a full conspectus, showing the results of Professor Preyer's careful
observations in a chronological order, arranged by months. This
considerable labor will render the book more practical, inasmuch as it
will enable each reader to see at a glance the items of development of
the child in the several departments brought together in epochs. This
makes it possible to institute comparative observations under the
guidance of Professor Preyer's method. I think that I do not exaggerate
the value of this conspectus when I say that it doubles the value of the
work to the reader.

WILLIAM T. HARRIS.
CONCORD, MASS., _November, 1888_.




CONTENTS.
                                                                     PAGE

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR                                                  v

CONSPECTUS SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF THE CHILD BY MONTHS                ix

THIRD PART.

_DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECT._

CHAPTER

XVI.--DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD'S INTELLECT INDEPENDENT
OF LANGUAGE                                                            3

XVII.--LEARNING TO SPEAK                                              33

    1. Disturbances of Speech in Adults                               34
       (1) Periphero-Impressive or Perceptive Disturbances,   36.
       (2) Central Disturbances,                              37.
       (3) Periphero-Expressive or Articulatory Disturbances, 38.

    2. The Organic Conditions of Learning to Speak                    42

    3. Parallel between the Disturbances of Speech in
       Adults and the Imperfections of Speech in the Child            45

       I. Lalopathy,                                          47.
          A. The Impressive Peripheral Processes
             disturbed--Deafness,                             47.
          B. The Central Processes disturbed--Dysphasia,      47.
             (1) The Sensory Processes centrally disturbed,   47.
             (2) The Sensori-motor Processes of Diction
                 disturbed,                                   48.
             (3) The Motor Processes centrally disturbed,     49.
          C. The Expressive Peripheral Processes disturbed,   54.
             (1) Dyslalia and Alalia,                         54.
             (2) Literal Pararthria or Paralalia,             56.
             (3) Bradylalia, or Bradyarthria,                 57.
       II. Dysphasia,                                         58.
       III. Dysmimia,                                         62.

    4. Development of Speech in the Child                             64

XVIII.--FIRST SOUNDS AND BEGINNINGS OF SPEECH IN THE CASE OF A
CHILD OBSERVED DAILY DURING HIS FIRST THREE YEARS                     99

XIX.--DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF, THE "I"-FEELING            189

XX.--SUMMARY OF RESULTS                                              208

APPENDIXES.

APPENDIX A.--Comparative Observations concerning the Acquirement
    of Speech by German and Foreign Children                         221
    (_a_) Diary of the Child of the Baroness von Taube, of
    Esthonia,                     261.

APPENDIX B.--Notes concerning Lacking, Defective, and Arrested
    Mental Development in the First Years of Life                    272

APPENDIX C.--Reports concerning the Process of Learning
    to See, on the part of Persons born blind, but acquiring
    Sight through Surgical Treatment. Also some Critical
    Remarks                                                          286

    I. The Chesselden Case,       286.
    II, III. The Ware Cases,      288.
    IV, V. The Home Cases,        296.
    VI. The Wardrop Case,         300.
    VII. The Franz Case,          306.
    Final Remarks,                312.




A CONSPECTUS OF THE OBSERVATIONS OF PROFESSOR PREYER ON THE MIND OF THE
CHILD.

ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY BY MONTHS, FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF THOSE WHO
WISH TO VERIFY THESE OBSERVATIONS, OR TO USE THEM AS A GUIDE IN THEIR
OWN INVESTIGATIONS.

BY H. W. BROWN.


FIRST MONTH.

SENSES.[A]

SIGHT.--_Light._--Five minutes after birth, slight sensibility to light
(2). Second day, sensitiveness to light of candle (3). Sixth and seventh
days, pleasure in moderately bright daylight (3, 4). Ninth and tenth
days, sensitiveness greater at waking than soon afterward (3). Sleeping
babes close the eyes more tightly when light falls on the eyes (4).
Eleventh day, pleasure in light of candle and in bright object (3).

_Discrimination of Colors._--Twenty-third day, pleasure in sight of
rose-colored curtain (6).

_Movements of Eyelids._--First to eleventh day, shutting and opening of
eyes (22). Irregular movements (23). Lid closed at touch of lashes from
sixth day on (26). Twenty-fifth day, eyes opened and shut when child is
spoken to or nodded to (30).

Pleasure shown by opening eyes wide, displeasure by shutting them
tightly; third, sixteenth, and twenty-first days (31).

_Movements of Eyes._--First day, to right and left (35). Tenth day,
non-coördinated movements (36). Third week, irregularity prevails (37).

_Direction of Look._--Eleventh day, to father's face and to the light
(43). Upward look (43). Twenty-third day, active looking begins (44).
Twenty-third and thirtieth days, a moving light followed (44).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Twelfth day, hypermetropia (60).

HEARING.--First days, all children deaf (72). Fourth day, child hears
noises like clapping of hands (81). Eleventh and twelfth days, child
quieted by father's voice: hears whistling. Twenty-fifth day, pulsation
of lids at sound of low voice. Twenty-sixth day, starting at noise of
dish. Thirtieth day, fright at loud voice (82).

FEELING.--_Sensitiveness to Contact._--At birth (97-105). Second and
third days, starting at gentle touches. Seventh day, waked by touch on
face (105). Eleventh day, lid closed at touch of conjunctiva more slowly
than in adults (103).

_Perception of Touch._--First gained in nursing (110).

_Sensibility to Temperature._--At birth, cooling unpleasant. Warm bath
agreeable. Seventh day, eyes opened wide with pleasure from bath (112).
First two or three years, cold water disagreeable (114). Mucous membrane
of mouth, tongue, lips, very sensitive to cold and warmth (115).

TASTE.--_Sensibility._--At birth (116-118). First day, sugar licked
(118). Second day, milk licked (119). Differences among newly-born
(120). Sensation not merely general (122).

_Comparison of Impressions._--During nursing period child prefers sweet
taste (123). Second day, child accepts food that on the fourth he
refuses (124).

SMELL.--_Faculty at Birth._--Strong-smelling substances produce mimetic
movements (130).

_Discrimination._--Eighth day, groping about for nipple (134).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--_Pleasure._--First day, in nursing; in
the bath; in the sight of objects; in the light (141).

_Discomfort._--First days, from cold, wet, hunger, tight clothing, etc.
(147).

_Hunger._--First days, manifested in sucking movements, crying,
restlessness (152). Cry differs from that of pain or of satisfaction.
Other signs of hunger (153).

_Satiety._--Third to fifth week, the nipple pushed away with the lips:
mouth-piece of bottle ditto. Tenth day, smile after eating. Fourth week,
signs of satisfaction; laughing, opening and half shutting eyes;
inarticulate sounds (157).

_Fatigue._--From crying and nursing (159). Second and third weeks, from
use of senses (160). First month, sleep lasts two hours; sixteen of the
twenty-four hours spent in sleep (162).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Outstretching and bending of arms and legs just
after birth; contractions, spreading and bending of fingers (205).
Grimaces (207). Wrinkling of forehead (309). First day, arms and legs
take same position as before birth (206). Second week, stretching of
limbs after waking (205).

_Reflex Movements._--In case of light-impressions (34-42). First cry
(213). Sneezing of newly-born (214). Coughing, ditto. (216). Seventh
day, yawning (215). First day, spreading of toes when sole of foot is
touched (224). First day, hiccough (219). First five days, choking
(218). Wheezing, yawning (215). Seventh day, respiration irregular
(217). Ninth day, clasping (243). Tenth day, lips protruded (283).
Fourteenth day, movement of left hand toward left temple (220).
Twenty-fourth day, snoring (215).

_Instinctive Movements._--First to third day, hands to face. Fifth day,
fingers clasp firmly; toes do not. Sixth day, hands go into eye (244).
Seventh day, pencil held with toes, but no seizing. Ninth day, no
clasping by sleeping child (245). Sucking (257-261). At end of first
week, lateral movements of head (264). Third week, clasping with
fingers, not with thumb (245).

_Expressive Movements._--Twenty-sixth day, smile of contentment (296).
Twenty-third day, tears flow (307). Crying, with tears, and whimpering,
become signs of mental states (308).

INTELLECT.[B]

Memory first active in the departments of taste and of smell; then in
touch, sight, hearing (5). Comparison of tastes (I, 123). Vowel-sounds
in first month (67). Sounds in first six months (74). Sounds made in
crying and screaming, _u-ä_ (101). Twenty-second day, association of
the breast with nursing (I, 260).

FOOTNOTES:

[A] Under "Senses" and "Will" the numbers in parentheses indicate pages
in Vol. I.

[B] Under "Intellect" the numbers in parentheses indicate pages from
Vol. II, unless otherwise stated.


SECOND MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Light._--Bright or highly-colored objects give pleasure (4).

_Discrimination of Colors._--Forty-second day, pleasure in sight of
colored tassels (7).

_Movements of Eyelids._--Fifth week, irregular movements of lids. Eighth
week, lid covering iris (23). Twenty-fifth day, opening and shutting
eyes in surprise (30). Fifty-seventh and fifty-eighth days, winking.
Sixtieth day, quick opening and shutting in fright (26).

_Movements of Eyes._--Thirty-first day, strabismus rare. Forty-sixth to
fiftieth day, very rare. Fifty-fifth day, irregular movements rare, but
appearing in sleep till the sixtieth day (37).

_Direction of Look._--Fifth week, toward the Christmas-tree (45).
Thirty-ninth day, toward tassels swinging (46). Seventh week, moving
lamp or bright object followed (45).

HEARING.--Fifth week, child does not sleep if persons walk or speak.
Starting at noises. Sixth week, starting at slight noises even in sleep;
quieted by mother's singing. Seventh week, fright at noise is greater
(83). Sensibility to musical tones, ditto. Eighth week, tones of piano
give pleasure (84).

TOUCH.--Thirty-eighth day, movements caused by touch of water (107).
Forty-first day, reflex movement of arms caused by a general slight
agitation (105, 106). Fiftieth and fifty-fifth days, closing of eyelid
at touch of eyelash (103). Seventh week, upper lip sensitive (100).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Pleasure in musical sounds (141); in
sight of human face (142). Reflexive laughing (145). Sixth week,
fretfulness and hunger (155). Eighth week, fatigue after hearing
piano-playing (160). Sleep of three, sometimes of five or six hours
(162).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Of eyes before waking, also twistings and
raisings of trunk (206). Seventh week, number of respirations
twenty-eight to the minute (217).

_Reflex Movements._--Of right arm at touch of left temple (220).
Forty-third day, sneezing caused by witch-meal (215). Fifth week,
vomiting (219). Eighth week, laughing caused by tickling (225).

_Instinctive Movements._--Seventh week, clasping not yet with thumb.
Eighth week, the four fingers of the child embrace the father's finger
(245).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Forty-third day, first consonant; child says _am-ma_; also
vowel-sound _ao_. Forty-fourth day, syllables _ta-hu_; forty-sixth day,
_gö_, _örö_; fifty-first day, _ara_; eighth and ninth weeks, _örrö_,
_arra_, frequent (102).


THIRD MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of the Eyelids._--Eyelid not completely
raised when child looked up (23). Irregular movements of eyes appear
(though rare) up to tenth week; at three months are no more observed
(37).

_Direction of Look._--Sixty-first day, child looked at his mother and
gave a cry of joy; the father's face made the child gay. Sixty-second
day, look directed at a swinging lamp (46).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Ninth week, accommodation apparent
(54).

HEARING.--Ninth week, sound of watch arouses attention; other
noises (84). Eleventh week, head moved in direction of sound (85).
Eighty-first day ditto. (47). Twelfth week, sudden turning of head
toward sounding body (85).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--_Pleasure._--Smile at sight
of the mother's face (145).

_Unpleasant Feeling._--From some internal cause (151).

_Fatigue._--Sucking tiresome (159). Sleep of four or five hours without
waking (162).

_Hunger._--Tenth week, child hungry three times or more in a night
(155).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Respirations, thirteenth week, twenty-seven to the
minute (217). Hiccough frequent; stopped by use of sweetened water
(219).

_Instinctive Movements._--Eleventh week, pencil held, but mechanically;
thumb not used in clasping (245). Twelfth week, eighty-fourth day,
contra-position of thumb reflexive (245, 246). Thirteenth week, thumb
follows fingers more readily (246). Eleventh week, head balanced
occasionally. Twelfth week, some gain in holding head. Thirteenth week,
head tolerably well balanced (264). Seizing merely apparent (246). No
voluntary movement (266).

INTELLECT.

Eighty-first day, seeking direction of sound (I, 47).

_Speech._--Consonant _m_ frequent (67). Sixty-fourth day, _ma_ (102).
Sixty-fifth day, _nei nei nei_ and once _a-omb_. Sixty-sixth day, _la_,
_grei_, _aho_, _ma_. Sixty-ninth day, _mömm_ and _ngö_. Seventy-first
day, _ra-a-ao_. Seventy-sixth day, _nä_ and _n[=a]i-n_. Seventy-eighth
day, _habu_. Twelfth week, _a-i_ and _u[=a]o_, _ä-o-a_, _ä-a-a_ and
_o-ä-ö_ (103).

_Feeling of Self._--Eleventh week, child does not see himself in mirror
(197).


FOURTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of Eyelids._--Ninety-eighth day, brow wrinkled when
look is upward (24). Fifty-seventh day, winking (26). Fifteenth and
sixteenth weeks, ditto (27). Seventeenth week, objects seized are moved
toward eyes; grasping at objects too distant (55).

_Movements of Eyes._--No more non-coördinated (37).

_Direction of Look._--Fourteenth week, following person moving. One
hundred and first day, following pendulum. Sixteenth week, gazing at
sides and ceiling of carriage and at objects (48).

HEARING.--Sixteenth week, head turned toward sound with certainty of
reflex (85).

FEELING.--Seventeenth week, eyes are closed when a drop of water touches
lashes (103). Fourteenth week, sleeping child throws up arms at sudden
touch (106).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Pleasure in grasping at objects (142).
Fifteenth week, intervals between meals three or four hours (155). Sleep
lasts five or six hours (162). Twenty-second week, astonishment at
seeing father after separation (173). Fourteenth week, smile of satiety.
Seventeenth week, joy in seeing image in mirror (297).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Fourteenth week, right hand to right eye (220).

_Instinctive Movements._--Fourteenth week, hands hold objects longer
and with contra-position of thumb. Fifteenth and sixteenth weeks, no
intentional seizing. One hundred and fourteenth day, ditto (246).
Seventeenth week, efforts to take hold of ball; ball moved to mouth
and eyes. One hundred and eighteenth day, frequent attempts at seizing;
following day, grasping gives pleasure (247). Fourteenth week, head
seldom falls forward. Sixteenth week, head held up permanently (264),
this the first distinct manifestation of will (265). Fourteenth week,
child sits, his back supported (267). Seventeenth week, biting (261).

_Imitative Movements._--Fifteenth week, beginnings of imitation; trying
to purse the lips (283). Seventeenth week, protruding tip of tongue
(284).

_Expressive Movements._--Sixteenth week, turnings of head and nodding,
not significant; head turned away in refusal (314).

_Deliberate Movements._--Fourteenth week, attentive looking at person
moving; one hundred and first day, at pendulum swinging (48). Fifteenth
week, imitation, pursing lips (283). Sixteenth and seventeenth weeks,
voluntary gazing at image in mirror (343).

INTELLECT.

Intellect participates in voluntary movements (I, 338).

_Speech._--Fourteenth week, _ntö_, _ha_, _lö_, _na_. Fifteenth week,
_nan-nana_, _n[=a]-n[=a]_, _nanna_, in refusal (103). Sixteenth week, in
screaming, _ä-[)u] ä-[)u] ä_, _[=a]-[)u] [=a]-[)u]_, _[)u]-ä [)u]-ä_,
_[=u]-[=u]-[=a]-ö_, _amme-a_; in discomfort,
_[=u][)a]-[=u][)a]-[=u][)a]-[=u][)a]_ (104).

_Feeling of Self._--Seventeenth week, child gazes at his own hand (193).
One hundred and thirteenth day, for the first time regards his image
with attention (197). One hundred and sixteenth day, laughs at his image
(198).


FIFTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Direction of Look._--Looking inquiringly (48).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Reaching too short (55).

HEARING.--Nineteenth week, pleasure in sound of crumpling of paper by
himself. Twenty-first week, beating of gong enchains attention (85).
Disturbed by noise (86).

TOUCH.--Auditory canal sensitive (106).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Pleasure in crumpling paper, tearing
newspapers and rolling them into balls, pulling at glove or hair,
ringing of a bell (142, 143). Eighteenth week, discomfort shown by
depressing angles of mouth (149). Eighteenth week, nights of ten to
eleven hours without taking food (155). Eighteenth week, desire shown
by stretching out arms (247).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Eighteenth week, objects seized are held
firmly and carried to the mouth (247). Nineteenth week, child takes
bit of meat and carries to mouth. One hundred and twenty-third day,
lips protruded in connection with seizing (248).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Consonant _k_, _gö_, _kö_, _[)a]gg[)e]gg[)e]kö_. First five
months, screaming sounds _u_, _ä_, _ö_, _a_, with _ü_ and _o_; _m_
almost the only consonant (104).

_Feeling of Self._--Discovery by child that he can cause sensations of
sound (192). Looking at his own fingers very attentively (194).


SIXTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of Eyelids._--Twenty-fifth-week, winking caused by
puff of wind in face (27).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Child laughs when nodded to by
father; observes father's image in mirror, etc. (62).

TASTE.--Medicine taken if sweetened (124). One hundred and fifty-sixth
day, child refuses breast, having had sweeter milk. End of twenty-third
week, milk of new nurse taken, also cow's milk, meat-broth (125).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Pleasure in grasping increases (142).
Arms moved up and down when child is nodded to (144). Twenty-third week,
depression of angles of mouth and cry of distress caused by harsh
address (149). Hunger apparent in persistent gaze at bottle, crying, and
opening of mouth (154). Sleep of six to eight hours (162). Astonishment
at seeing father after separation, and at sight of stranger (173).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Sneezing caused, on one hundred and seventieth day,
by blowing on the child (215).

_Instinctive Movements._--Twenty-second week, child raised himself to
sitting posture (267). Twenty-third week, ditto; pleased at being placed
upright (275).

_Expressive Movements._--Laugh accompanied by raisings and droppings of
arms when pleasure is great (299). Arm-movements that seemed like
defensive movements (314). "Crowing" a sign of pleasure (II, 104).

INTELLECT.

Use of means to cause flow of milk (12).

_Speech._--Twenty-second week, _ögö_, _ma-ö-[)e]_, _h[)a]_, _[=a]_,
_ho-ich_. "Crowing" and aspirate _ha_, and _brrr-há_, signs of pleasure
(104). So _aja_, _örrgö_, _[=a]-[=a]-i-[)o]-[=a]_, _eu_ and _oeu_
(French) and _ä_ and _ö_ (German), also _ijä_; _i_ and _u_ rare (105).

_Feeling of Self._--Twenty-third week, discrimination between touch of
self and of foreign object (194; I, 109). Twenty-fourth week, child
gazes at glove and at his fingers alternately (194). Twenty fourth week,
sees father's image in mirror and turns to look at father. Twenty-fifth
week, stretches hand toward his own image. Twenty-sixth week, sees image
of father and compares it with original (198).


SEVENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of Eyelids._--End of seventh month, opening and
shutting of fan causes opening and shutting of eyes (30).

_Direction of Look._--Twenty-ninth week, looking at flying sparrow (48).
Thirtieth week, child does not look after objects let fall (49).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Accommodation is perfect (55).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Staring at strange face (62).

HEARING.--Gaze at person singing; joy in military music (86).

FEELING.--Child became pale in bath (115).

TASTE.--New tastes cause play of countenance (124). One hundred and
eighty-fifth day, cow's milk boiled, with egg, is liked; leguminous food
not (125).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Pleasure in his image in mirror (142).
Child laughs when others laugh to him (145). Twenty-ninth week, crying
with hunger; spreading out tongue (153). Satiety shown by thrusting
mouth-piece out (157).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Nose becomes mobile. Babes strike about them
vigorously (207).

_Reflex Movements._--Sighing appears (216).

_Instinctive Movements._--Thirtieth week, seizing more perfect (249).
Child places himself upright on lap, twenty-eighth week (275).

_Imitative Movements._--Imitation of movements of head; of pursing lips
(283).

_Expressive Movements._--Averting head as sign of refusal; thrusting
nipple out of mouth (313, 314). Astonishment shown by open mouth and
eyes (55).

INTELLECT.

Child did not recognize nurse after absence of four weeks (7); but
children distinguish faces before thirtieth week (6).

_Speech._--When hungry, child screams _mä_, _ä_, _[)u]ä_, _[)u]ä[)e]_;
when contented, says _örrö_; _lä_, _[)u]-[=a]-[)u]-i-i_; _t_ seldom,
_k_ only in yawning, _p_ very rarely (106).


EIGHTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of Eyelids._--Brow not wrinkled invariably in looking
upward (24). Play of lid on hearing new noises; no lifting of eyebrows
(30, 31). Thirty-fourth week, eyes opened wide with longing (31).

_Direction of Look._--Thirty-first week, gaze turned in direction of
falling object. Thirty-third week, objects moved slowly downward are
followed with close gaze. Thirty-fourth week, objects let fall by him
are seldom looked after (49).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Interest in bottles (62).

HEARING.--Quick closing of lids at new impressions of sound (86).

TASTE.--Pleasure in the "prepared food" (125).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Discomfort accompanied by square form
of the mouth (149). Craving for food shown by cooing sound (155).
Strongest feeling connected with appeasing of hunger (157). Restless
nights (162). Astonishment at new sounds and sights; with fright (86).
Thirty-first week, at clapping of fan. Thirty-fourth week, at imitation
of voices of animals (173).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Accompanying movement of hand (210).
Thirty-fourth week, stretchings of arms and legs accompanying
utterance (II, 108).

_Instinctive Movements._--Thirty-second week, seizing with both hands
more perfect; attention more active (248). In same week, legs stretched
up vertically, feet observed attentively, toes carried to mouth with the
hands (249). Pulling objects to him; grasping at bottle (250).
Thirty-fourth week, carrying things to mouth (251).

_Expressive Movements._--Laugh begins to be persistently loud (299).
Thirty-second week, child no longer sucks at lips when he is kissed, but
licks them (305). Eyelid half closed in disinclination (315). Interest
in objects shown by stretching out hands (321).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Variety of sounds made in the first eight months at random
(76). Concept of bottle before language (79). Sounds in screaming
different (106). Once the sound _h[=a]-upp_; frequently _a-[(ei]_,
_a-[(au]_, _[)a]-h[(au]-[)a]_, _hörrö_. Also _nt[)e]-ö_, _mi-ja mija_;
once _o[)u][=a][)e]i_ (107).

FEELING OF SELF.--Thirty-second week, child looks at his legs and feet
as if they were foreign to him (194).


NINTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of Eyes._--Eyes converged easily (38).

_Direction of Look._--Thirty-sixth week, objects that fall are not
regularly looked after, but slowly moving objects, e. g., tobacco-smoke,
are followed (49).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Boxes are gazed at (62). More
interest shown in things in general (63).

HEARING.--Winking and starting at slamming noise (86).

TASTE.--Yolk of egg with cane-sugar taken with expression of surprise.
Water and bread liked (126).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Striking hands together and laughing
for joy (145). Eyes shut when something disagreeable is to be endured;
head turned away also (148). Cooing, as in eighth month (155). Fear of
dog (167, 168).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Number of respirations (in fever) forty and
forty-two in a minute (217).

_Instinctive Movements._--Teeth-grinding (262). Turning over when laid
face downward (266). Thirty-fifth week, child places himself on arm and
hand of nurse, and looks over her shoulder (275). Thirty-ninth week,
likes to sit with support (267). Thirty-ninth week, stands on feet a
moment without support (269).

_Expressive Movements._--Loud laughing at new, pleasing objects (299).
Turns head to light when asked where it is (321).

_Deliberate Movements._--Things brought to mouth are put quickly on
tongue (329).

INTELLECT.

Question understood before child can speak (I, 321).

_Speech._--Voice more modulated: screaming varies with different causes
(107). Delight shown by crowing sounds: _mä-mä_, _ämmä_, _mä_, are
expressions of pleasure; _[=a]-au-[=a]-[=a]_, _[=a]-[)o]_, _a-u-au_,
_na-na_; _apa_, _ga-au-[)a]_, _acha_ (108).

FEELING OF SELF.--Feet are felt of, and toes are carried to mouth (190).
Thirty-fifth week, foot grasped and carried to mouth. Thirty-sixth week,
other objects preferred to hands and feet. Thirty-ninth week, in the
bath his own skin is looked at and felt of, also his legs (194).
Thirty-fifth week, his image in mirror is grasped at gayly (198).


TENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Movements of Eyelids._--Brow invariably wrinkled at looking
upward (24).

_Movements of Eyes._--Convergence of lines of vision disturbed (38).

_Direction of Look._--Forty-third week, objects thrown down are looked
at (49).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Visual impressions connected with
food best interpreted (63).

HEARING.--Head turned at noise (87).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Joy at lighting of lamp (145).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Inhibition of reflex (229).

_Instinctive Movements._--Forty-third week, carrying objects to mouth
(252). Taking a hair from one hand into the other (253). Finger bitten
(261). Bread crunched and swallowed (262). Turning over when laid on
face (266). Fortieth and forty-first weeks, trying to sit without
support (267). Forty-second week, sitting up without support in bath and
carriage (267, 268). Forty-first week, first attempts at walking (275).
Forty-second week, moving feet forward and sidewise; inclination to
walk. Forty-third week, foot lifted high; moving forward (276).

_Imitative Movements._--Beckoning imitated (285).

_Expressive Movements._--Laughing becomes more conscious and intelligent
(299). Crying in sleep (308). Striking hands together in sleep (319).
Object pointed at is carried to mouth and chewed (322). Body
straightened in anger (324). This not intentional (326).

INTELLECT.

Forty-third week, knowledge of weight of bodies (I, 50). A child
missed his parents when they were absent, also a single nine-pin
of a set (7, 8).

_Speech._--Child can not repeat a syllable heard (77). In
monologue, syllables are more distinct, loud, and varied when
child is left to himself than when other persons entertain him:
_ndä[)e]_, _b[=a]ë-b[=a]ë_, _ba ell_, _arrö_. Frequent are _mä_,
_pappa_, _tatta_, _appapa_, _babba_, _tätä_, _pa_, _rrrr_, _rrra_.
Hints at imitation (108).

_Feeling of Self._--Forty-first week, striking his own body and foreign
objects (191). Forty-first to forty-fourth week, image in mirror laughed
at and grasped at (198).

ELEVENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Direction of Look._--Forty-seventh week, child throws down
objects and looks after them (49).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Forty-fourth week, new objects no
longer carried to eyes, but gazed at and felt. Forty-seventh week,
accommodation perfect (55).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Trying to fixate objects (63).

HEARING.--Screaming is quieted by a "Sh!" or by singing. Three hundred
and nineteenth day, difference in sound of spoon on plate when plate was
touched by hand (87).

TASTE.--Meat-broth with egg taken; scalded skimmed milk rejected; dry
biscuit liked (126).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Forty-fourth week, astonishment at
strange face (173).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Forty-fifth week, grasping at flame of lamp;
forty-seventh, at objects behind a pane of glass; gain in moving muscles
of arm; shreds of paper handled (252). Biting father's hand (261).
Smacking lips (262). Sitting becomes habit for life (268). Standing
without support; stamping; but standing only for a moment (269). End of
forty-seventh week, feet well placed, but lifted too high and put down
too hard (276).

_Expressive Movements._--Grasping at his image with laugh; jubilant
noise at being allowed to walk (299).

_Deliberate Movements._--Striking spoon against object and exchanging
objects (326, 327). Child takes biscuit, carries it to mouth, bites off
a bit, chews and swallows it; but can not drink from glass (329).

INTELLECT.

Syllables correctly repeated; intentional sound-imitation on the three
hundred and twenty-ninth day. Forty-fifth week, response made for
diversion: whispering begins (109). Three kinds of _r_-sounds: new
syllables, _ta-h[(ee]_, _dann-tee_, _[(aa]-n[(ee]_, _ngä_, _tai_, _bä_,
_dall_, _at-tall_, _kamm_, _akkee_, _praï-jer_, _tra_, _[=a]-h[(ee]_.
Some earlier sounds frequent; consonants _b_, _p_, _t_, _d_, _m_, _n_,
_r_; _l_, _g_, _k_: vowel _a_ most used, _u_ and _o_ rare, _i_ very rare
(110). Accentuation not frequent (111). Association of idea with
utterance in one case (111, 122). Forty-fifth week, to word "papa,"
response _rrra_ (113).

_Feeling of Self._--Forty-fifth to fifty-fifth week, discovery of his
power to cause changes (192).


TWELFTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Fifty-first week, pleasure
in seeing men sawing wood at distance of more than one hundred feet
(55).

HEARING.--Screaming quieted by "Sh!" (87). Three hundred and sixty-third
day, hears noise in next room and looks in direction of sound (88).

TASTE.--Fastidious about food (126).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Grunting as indication of pleasure
(144). Fifty-second week, astonishment at new sound (173).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Accompanying movement of hand in drinking (209).

_Instinctive Movements._--Child seized father's hand, carried it to
mouth and bit it (261). Forty-eighth week, standing without support a
moment; stamping; pushing a chair (276). Forty-ninth week, child can not
raise himself without help or stand more than an instant. Fiftieth week,
can not place himself on his feet, or walk without help (277).

_Imitative Movements._--Trying to strike with spoon on tumbler; puffing
repeated in sleep (287).

_Expressive Movements._--End of year, imitative laughing; crowing (299).
Laughing in sleep (300). Opening of mouth in kissing (305). Arms
stretched out in desire (322).

_Deliberate Movements._--Biscuit put into mouth with few failures;
drinking from glass, breathing into the water (329).

INTELLECT.

Ideas gained before language (78). Logical activity applied to
perceptions of sound (I, 88). Abstraction, whiteness of milk (18).

_Speech._--Imitation more successful, but seldom correct. Articulate
sounds made spontaneously: _haja_, _jajajajaja_, _aja_, _njaja_,
_naïn-hopp_, _ha-a_, _pa-a_, _d[=e]wär_, _han-na_, _mömma_, _allda_,
_alldaï_, _apa-u-a_, _gägä_, _ka_, _ladn_; _atta_ is varied, no more
_dada_; _w_ for the first time. Ability to discriminate between words
(112). Fifty-second week, child of himself obeys command, "Give the
hand!" Quieting effect of sounds "sh, ss, st, pst" (113).

_Feeling of Self._--Striking hard substances against teeth; gnashing
teeth (189). Tearing of paper continued (192).


THIRTEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

HEARING.--Child strikes on keys of piano; pleased with singing
of canary-bird (89).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Laughing almost invariably
follows the laugh of others (145). Sleep, fourteen hours daily (162).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Standing some moments without support (270).
Fifty-third week, creeping. Fifty-fourth week, walking, with support;
movements in creeping asymmetrical (277).

_Expressive Movements._--No idea of kissing (305). Shaking head in
denial (315). Begging sound along with extending of hands in desire
(323).

INTELLECT.

Trying door after shutting it (15, 16). Hears the vowel-sounds in word
(68).

_Speech._--Desire expressed by _ä-na_, _ä-nananana_ (112). Awkwardness
continues; attention more lively. Tries to repeat words said for him.
Three hundred and sixty-ninth day, _papa_ repeated correctly (113, 114).
Syllables most frequent, _nja_, _njan_, _dada_, _atta_, _mama_, _papaï_,
_attaï_, _na-na-na_, _hatta_, _meen[)e]-meen[)e]-meen[)e],_ _mömm_,
_mömma_, _ao-u_: _na-na_ denotes desire, _mama_, mother. Fifty-fourth
week, joy expressed by crowing, some very high tones; first distinct
_s_, three hundred and sixty-eighth day (114). Understanding of words
spoken (115). Confusion of associations; first conscious act of
obedience (116).

_Feeling of Self._--Rapping head with hand (191). Finding himself a
cause; shaking keys, etc. (192). Fifty-fifth week, strikes himself and
observes his hands; compares fingers of others with his own (195).


FOURTEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Fifty-eighth week, grasping
at lamp above him (55).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of falling (169). Fifty-eighth
week, astonishment at lantern (173).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Child could be allowed to bite paper to
pieces; he took the pieces out of his mouth (253). Fifty-seventh week,
he hitches along on hands and knees; can not walk without support.
Sixtieth week, raises himself by chair (277).

_Imitative Movements._--For imitating swinging of arms an interval of
time was required (287). Coughing imitated (288). Nodding not imitated
(315).

_Expressive Movements._--Confounding of movements (322). Affection shown
by laying hand on face and shoulders of others (324).

_Deliberate Movements._--Child takes off and puts on the cover of a can
seventy-nine times (328).

INTELLECT.

Wrong understanding of what is heard (89).

_Speech._--No doubt that _atta_ means "going"; _brrr_, practiced and
perfected; _dakkn_, _daggn_, _taggn_, _attagn_, _attatn_; no special
success in repeating vowels and syllables (117). Child tries and laughs
at his failures, if others laugh; parrot-like repetition of some
syllables (118). Gain in understanding of words heard; association of
definite object with name (119). More movements executed on hearing
words (120). Confounding of movements occurs, but grows rare; begging
attitude seen to be useful (121).

_Feeling of Self._--Four hundred and ninth day, child bit himself on the
arm (189). Pulling out and pushing in a drawer, turning leaves of book,
etc. (192). Fifty-seventh week, child looks at his image in hand-mirror,
puts hand behind glass, etc. (198). Fifty-eighth week, his photograph
treated in like manner; he turns away from his image in mirror; sixtieth
week, recognizes his mother's image in mirror as image (199).


FIFTEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Direction of Look._--Sixty-third to sixty-fifth week, objects
thrown down and looked after (50).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Grasps at candle, puts hand into
flame, but once only (63).

HEARING.--Laughing at new noises, as gurgling or thunder (89).

SMELL.--Coffee and cologne make no impression till end of month (134).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Sixty-second week, child stands a few seconds
when support is withdrawn. Sixty-third week, walks, holding on to a
support (277). Sixty-fourth week, can walk without support, if he thinks
he is supported; sixty-fifth week, walks holding by one finger of
another's hand; raises himself to knees, stands up if he can hold to
something (278).

_Imitative Movements._--Coughing. Learns to blow out candle (288).
Opening and shutting of hand (289).

_Expressive Movements._--Laughing at new sounds (299). The words "Give a
kiss" produce a drawing near of head and protruding of lips (306).
Wrinkling of brow in attempts at imitation (310). Deprecating movement
of arm (314). Sixty-fourth week, nodding sometimes accompanies the word
"no"; four hundred and forty-fifth day, an accompanying movement (316).
First shrugging of shoulders (317). Begging gesture made by child when
he wants something (318). Same made in asking for amusement (319). Wish
expressed by handing a ring, looking at glasses to be struck, and saying
_hay-[)u]h_ (323).

INTELLECT.

Hunting for scraps of paper, etc. (17). After burning his finger in
flame of candle, the child never put it near the flame again, but would,
in fun, put it in the direction of the candle. He allowed mouth and chin
to be wiped without crying (20).

_Speech._--New sound _wa_; astonishment expressed by
_h[=a]-[=a]-[)e][=a]-[)e]_, joy by crowing in high and
prolonged tones, strong desire by _häö_, _hä-[)e]_, pain,
impatience, by screaming in vowels passing over into one
another (121). The _atta_ still used when a light is dimmed
(122). Advance in repeating syllables. Child is vexed
when he can not repeat a word. One new word, _heiss_ (hot)
(123). The _s_ is distinct; _th_ (Eng.) appears; _w_;
smacking in sixty-fifth week; tongue the favorite plaything
(124). Understands words "moon," "clock," "eye," "nose,"
"cough," "blow," "kick," "light"; affirmative nod at "ja"
in sixty-fourth week; negative shaking at "no"; holding
out hand at words "Give the hand" or "hand"; more time
required when child is not well (125).

_Feeling of Self._--Child bit his finger so that he cried out with pain
(191). Sixty-second week, playing with his fingers as foreign objects;
pressing one hand down with the other (195). Sixty-first week, trying to
feel of his own image in the mirror (199).


SIXTEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Sixty-eighth week, reaching
too short, too far to left or right, too high or too low (56).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Grasping at jets of water (63).

HEARING.--Child holds watch to his ear and listens to the ticking (89).

SMELL.--Smell and taste not separated; a flower is taken into mouth
(135).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of high tones (169).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Sleeping child raised hand to eye (202).
Accompanying movement of fingers in drinking (210).

_Reflex Movements._--Respirations, in sleep, twenty-two to twenty-five a
minute (217).

_Instinctive Movements._--Sixty-sixth week, four hundred and
fifty-seventh day, child runs alone (278). Next day, stops and stamps.
Four hundred and sixty-first day, can walk backward, if led, and can
turn round alone. At the end of the week can look at objects while
walking. Sixty-seventh week, a fall occurs rarely. Sixty-eighth week,
walking becoming mechanical (279).

_Imitative Movements._--A ring put on his head in imitation (289).
Waiting attitude (318).

_Expressive Movements._--Lips protruded almost like a snout (302).
Shaking head meant "No" and "I do not know" (316). Child shrugs
shoulders when unable to answer (317). Waiting attitude becomes a sign
(318).

_Deliberate Movements._--Opening and shutting cupboards, bringing
objects, etc. Holding ear-ring to ear (327).

INTELLECT.

Child holds an ear-ring to his ear with understanding (I, 327). A
begging movement at seeing box from which cake had come (11). Small
understanding shown in grasping at ring (13).

_Speech._--Progress in repeating words spoken for him and in
understanding words heard. Desire expressed by _hä!_ _hä-ö!_ _hä-[)e]!_
_h[)e]-[)e]!_ More seldom _hi_, _gö-gö_, _gö_, _f-pa_, _[(au]_; more
frequently, _ta_, _dokkn_, _tá-ha_, _a-bwa-bwa_, _b[)u][=a]-b[)u][=a]_;
once _dagon_. Child "reads" the newspaper (126). Pain expressed by
screaming; joy by crowing with vowel _i_; _a_ repeated on command; _mö_
and _ma_; imitation tried (127). Touches eye, ear, etc., when these are
named--not with certainty (128). Understands "bring," "give," etc.
(129).

_Feeling of Self._--Putting thumbs against the head and pushing,
experimenting (191). Sixty-sixth week, child strikes at his image in
mirror. Sixty-seventh week, makes grimaces before mirror; turns round to
see his father, whose image appeared in mirror (199). Sixty-ninth week,
signs of vanity (200).


SEVENTEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Interpretation of what is seen._--Child grasps at tobacco-smoke
(64).

HEARING.--Holding watch to ear (89).

TASTE.--Surprise at new tastes (119).

SMELL.--Inability to separate smell and taste (135).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Prolonged sleep; ten hours at a time
(162).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Right hand moved when right nostril is touched
(221).

_Instinctive Movements._--Clasping of finger in sleep (243). Seventieth
week, child raises himself from floor alone; seventy-first week, steps
over threshold (279).

_Expressive Movements._--Shaking head means "I do not wish" (316).
Throwing himself on floor and screaming with rage (323).

INTELLECT.

Child brings traveling-bag to stand upon in order to reach (12). Play of
"hide and seek" (17).

_Speech._--Screaming, whimpering, etc. (101). Increase of
discrimination: _bibi_, _nä-nä-nä_, _t-tó_, _höt-tó_; voluntary
imitation (129). Associations of words heard with objects and movements
(130).

_Feeling of Self._--Making grimaces before mirror (200).


EIGHTEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Direction of Look._--Seventy-eighth week, throwing away of
playthings is rare (50).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Anxiety on seeing man dressed in
black (64).

SMELL.--Objects no longer carried to mouth (135).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Laughing at thunder (170).

WILL.

_Impulsive Movements._--Holding little finger apart from others (209).

_Instinctive Movements._--Walks over threshold by holding on (275).
Seventy-seventh week, runs around table; seventy-eighth, walks over
threshold without holding on (280).

_Imitative Movements._--Blowing horn (290).

_Expressive Movements._--Trying to hit with foot, striking, etc. (315).
Waiting attitude (318).

_Deliberate Movements._--Full spoon carried to mouth with skill (329).

INTELLECT.

Memory of towel (8). Watering flowers with empty pot (16). Plays (17).
Giving leaves to stag, etc. (18). Stick of wood put in stove (20).

_Speech._--Understanding of words increases (130). Repeating of
syllables is rare; _atta_ becomes _tto_, _t-tu_, _ftu_; feeling
recognized by tone of voice (131).

_Feeling of Self._--Recognition of himself as cause of changes (192).


NINETEENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

HEARING.--Hearing watch on his head (89).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of strangers ceases (150). Laugh
at thunder and lightning (170).

WILL.

_Imitative Movements._--Combing and brushing hair, washing hands, etc.
(290).

_Expressive Movements._--Fastidious about kissing (306). Pride in
baby-carriage (324).

_Deliberative Movements._--Spoon taken in left hand (329).

INTELLECT.

Father recognized after absence (8). Bringing cloth for wrap and begging
for door to be opened (12). Grunting in order to be taken away (13).
Induction, watch and clock (18). Crying seen to be useless (20).

_Speech._--Imitation of whistle (91). Spontaneous sound imitations more
frequent (131). Gazing after objects thrown and whispering, reading
newspaper (132). Response to _pa_ correctly given (133). Objects
correctly pointed out; memory of tricks (134).

_Feeling of Self._--Attempt to give his foot (190).


TWENTIETH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--First color-tests. Eighty-fifth
week, no discrimination (7). Eighty-sixth and eighty-seventh weeks, no
results (8).

_Movements of the Eyes._--Readiness of convergence, pupils very wide
open (38).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Prolonged sleep habitual, etc. (163).

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Respirations twenty-two and more (217).

_Instinctive Movements._--Eighty-fifth week, thresholds stepped over
quickly; inclines forward in running (280).

_Imitative Movements._--Use of comb and brush, putting on collar (290).
Scraping feet, putting pencil to mouth, marking on paper (291).

_Expressive Movements._--Proximity essential in kissing; bends head when
"kiss" is said (306). Antipathy expressed by turning head at approach of
women in black (315).

_Deliberate Movements._--Carries spoon with food to mouth cleverly
(329).

INTELLECT.

As in nineteenth month, grunting (12,13).

_Speech._--_Rodi_, _otto_, _rojo_ (93). Understanding of the word
"other" (128, 129). Five hundred and eighty-fourth day, important
advance in repeating words said (135). Imagination; can not repeat
three syllables; laughs when others laugh (136). Single words more
promptly understood (137). One new concept, expressed by _d[=a]_ and
_nd[=a]_, or _t[=a]_ and _nt[=a]_. Eighty-seventh week, _attah_ said
on railway-train; _papa_ and _bät_ or _bit_ (for "bitte") rightly
used; much outcry (138). Crowing tones not so high; loud readings
continued (139).


TWENTY-FIRST MONTH.

SENSES.

HEARING.--Dancing not rhythmical (89, 90).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of the sea (170).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Eighty-ninth week, running is awkward, but
falling rare (280).

_Imitative Movements._--Imitation without understanding (290, 291).

_Expressive Movements._--Ninetieth week, pointing as expression of wish
(321).

INTELLECT.

Recognition of father (8). Association of biscuit with coat and wardrobe
(11).

_Speech._--Imitations more frequent. Eighty-ninth week, babbling
different, more _consonants_; _ptö-ptö_, _pt-pt_, and _verlapp_, also
_dla-dla_; willfulness shown in articulate sounds and shaking head
(139). Unlike syllables not repeated, _dang-gee_ and _dank-kee_;
tendency to doubling syllables, _tete_, _bibi_; babbling yields great
pleasure; _bibi_ for "bitte" rightly used. New word _mimi_, when hungry
or thirsty (140). Understands use and signification of sound, _neinein_;
and answers of his own accord _jaja_ to question in ninety-first week.
Strength of memory for sounds; points correctly to nose, mouth, etc.
(141). Astonishing progress in understanding what is said. Few
expressions of his own with recognizable meaning, _j[=a][)e]_ excepted.
_Att_, _att_, _att_, unintelligible. Tried to imitate sound of steam of
locomotive (142).

_Feeling of Self._--Placing shells and buttons in rows (193). Puts lace
about him; vanity; laughs and points at his own image in mirror (200).
The same on six hundred and twentieth day (201).


TWENTY-SECOND MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--New impressions enchain attention; the mysterious more
attractive (64).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Progress in understanding; orders executed with surprising
accuracy (142). Strength of word-memory; facility of articulation;
spontaneous utterance of _pss_, _ps_, _ptsch_, _pth_; _pa-ptl-dä-pt_;
greeting with _h[=a][=a]-ö_, _ada_ and _ana_. Singing, _rollo_, _mama_,
_mämä_, etc. More certainty in reproducing sounds: "pst, anna, otto,
lina," etc. Three-syllabled words correctly repeated, _a-ma-ma_,
_a-pa-pa_ (143). Words too hard are given back with _tap[)e]ta_,
_p[)e]ta_, _pta_, _ptö-ptö_ or _rateratetat_. _Ja ja_ and _nein nein_,
with _da_ and _bibi_ and _mimi_, used properly in request. Cry of pain
a strong contrast with the crowing for joy (144).


TWENTY-THIRD MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--Ninety-sixth week, does not
appreciate distance (56).

WILL.

_Imitative Movements._--Imitative impulse seems like ambition;
ceremonious movements imitated (291).

_Expressive Movements._--Kiss given as a mark of favor (306). Striking
hands together in applause and desire for repetition (319). Tears of
sorrow instead of anger; tries to move chair to table, etc. (324).

INTELLECT.

Joy at seeing playthings after absence of eleven and a half weeks (8).
Concept of "cup" not sharply defined (16). Use of adjective for the
first spoken judgment (96).

_Speech._--_Heiss_ (hot) means "The drink is too hot," and "the stove is
hot" (144). _Watja_ and _mimi_; _mimmi_, _mömö_, _m[=a]m[=a]_, mean
food; _atta_, disappearance; spontaneous articulation, _[(oi]_, _[(eu]_,
_ana_, _ida_, _didl_, _dadl_, _dldo-dlda_; in singing-tone, _opojö_,
_apojopojum aui_, _heissa_; calls grandparents _e-papa_ and _e-mama_;
knows who is meant when these are spoken of. Understands words more
easily, as "drink, eat, shut, open" (145). Word-memory becoming firm;
imagination. Great progress in reproducing syllables and words (146).
Child's name, "Axel," is called _Aje_, _Eja_. "Bett, Karre, Kuk,"
repeated correctly. Echolalia reappears (147). Words are best pronounced
by child when he is not called upon to do it (148).

_Feeling of Self._--Child holds biscuit to his toes (190).


TWENTY-FOURTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Interpretation of what is seen._--Moving animals closely
observed (64).

HEARING.--Trying to sing, and beating time (90).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Astonishment more seldom apparent
(174).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Child turns, of himself, dancing in time to
music; beats time (280).

_Imitative Movements._--Ceremonious movements imitated, salutation,
uncovering head (291).

_Expressive Movements._--Roguish laughing first observed (299).

INTELLECT.

Understanding of actions and of use of utensils more developed than
ability to interpret representations of them (I, 64, 65).

_Speech._--Voluntary sound-imitations gain in frequency and accuracy;
genuine echolalia (148). Imperfect imitations (149). Multiplicity of
meanings in the same utterance (150). Distinguishing men from women.
Combination of two words into a sentence, seven hundred and seventh day;
words confounded; also gestures and movements; but not in the expression
of joy and grief (151, 152).


TWENTY-FIFTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--Color-tests, red and green; seven
hundred and fifty-eighth day, eleven times right, six wrong; seven
hundred and fifty-ninth, seven right, five wrong; seven hundred and
sixtieth, nine right, five wrong (8). Does not yet _know_ what blue and
green signify. Moves and handles himself well in twilight (21).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--One hundred and eighth week, power
of accommodation good; small photographic likenesses recognized (56).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Progress is extraordinary. Does not pronounce a perfect "u."
All sound-imitations more manifold, etc.; begins saying "_so_" when any
object is brought to appointed place (152). Has become more teachable,
repeats three words imperfectly. Evidence of progress of memory,
understanding and articulation in answers given. No word invented by
himself; calls his nurse _wolá_, probably from the often-heard "ja
wohl." Correct use of single words picked up increases surprisingly
(153). Misunderstandings rational; words better understood; reasoning
developed (154). Inductive reasoning. Progress in forming sentences.
Sentence of five words. Pronouns signify objects or qualities (155,
156).


TWENTY-SIXTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--Seven hundred and sixty-third day,
15 right, 1 wrong. Three colors pointed out; disinclination to continue
(8). Seven hundred and sixty-fifth day, green confounded with yellow.
One hundred and tenth week, right 73, wrong 22. Blue added. End of one
hundred and tenth week to one hundred and twelfth week, right 124, wrong
36. Yellow more surely recognized than other colors. Violet added (9).
Colors taken separately. One hundred and twelfth week, right 44, wrong
11. Tests in both ways; attention not continuous. Gray is added. One
hundred and twelfth and one hundred and thirteenth weeks, right 90,
wrong 27 (10, 11). Child does not know what "green" means in one hundred
and twelfth week (21).

_Seeing Near and Distant Objects._--One hundred and thirteenth week,
articles of furniture recognized in pictures at distance of three inches
or three feet (56).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--First attempts at climbing (331).

INTELLECT.

Child points out objects in pictures, and repeats names given to them;
list of results (156). Points out of his own accord, with certainty, in
the picture-book. Appropriates many words not taught him, _tola_ for
"Kohlen," _dals_ for "Salz." Others correctly said and used (157). Some
of his mutilated words not recognizable; "sch" sometimes left out,
sometimes given as _z_ or _ss_. Independent thoughts expressed by words
more frequently; "Good-night" said to the Christmas-tree (158). Verb
used (in the infinitive) showing growth of intellect; learning of tricks
decreases (159). No notion of number; does not understand "Thank you,"
but thanks himself. More names of animals, learned from adults; no
onomatopoeia (160).


TWENTY-SEVENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--Color-tests, from one hundred and
fourteenth to one hundred and sixteenth week, four trials, colors mixed;
result, 59 right, 22 wrong (11). Blue especially confounded with violet,
also with green. Four trials in one hundred and fourteenth and one
hundred and fifteenth weeks; result, 58 right, 32 wrong (12). Two trials
in one hundred and fifteenth week; result, 25 right, 16 wrong (13).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Uncomfortable feeling through pity;
child weeps if human forms cut out of paper are in danger of mutilation
(150, 151).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Pleasure in climbing begins (280).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Activity of thought. Observation and comparison. Gratitude
does not appear (161). Wishes expressed by verbs in the infinitive or by
substantives. Adverbs; indefinite pronouns. Seven hundred and
ninety-sixth day, makes the word _Messen_ (162). _Wolà_ and _atta_ have
almost disappeared. Independent applications of words (163). Monologues
less frequent. Begs apple to give to a puppet. Echolalia prominent.
Tones and noises imitated (164). Laughing when others laugh; fragments
of a dialogue repeated. Feeble memory for answers and numbers. Eight
hundred and tenth day, gave his own name for first time in answer to a
question (165). No question yet asked by the child. The article is not
used. Pronunciation slowly becoming correct (166).


TWENTY-EIGHTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--One hundred and twenty-first week,
greater uncertainty (13).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of pigs (168).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Going on all-fours; jumping, climbing gives
pleasure (280).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Rapid increase of activity in forming ideas, and greater
certainty in use of words. Ambition; observation and combination;
beginning of self-control; use of his own name and of names of parents;
independent thinking (167). Increase in number of words correctly
pronounced; attempt to use prepositions; first intelligent use of the
article (168). Questioning active; first spontaneous question on eight
hundred and forty-fifth day. "Where?" is his only interrogative word.
Reproduction of foreign expressions (169). Imagination lively; paper
cups used like real ones. Articulation better, but still deficient. Many
parts of the body named correctly (170). Child makes remarks for a
quarter of an hour at a time concerning objects about him, sings,
screams in sleep (171).


TWENTY-NINTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--One hundred and twenty-fourth week,
right, 58; wrong, 49. Eight hundred and sixty-eighth day, child takes
colors of his own accord and names them; confounding rose, gray, and
pale-green, brown and gray, blue and violet. One hundred and
twenty-fourth and one hundred and twenty-fifth weeks, right, 80; wrong,
34 (14). Red and yellow generally named rightly; blue and green not. Red
and yellow are removed; child is less interested. One hundred and
twenty-fifth and one hundred and twenty-sixth weeks, right, 80; wrong,
63. Orange confounded with yellow, blue with violet, green with gray,
black with brown. Failure of attempt to induce child to put like colors
together, or to select colors by their names (15).

_Direction of Look._--One hundred and twenty-fourth week, gaze follows
ball thrown (50).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of dogs (168).

INTELLECT.

Personal pronoun used in place of his own name. Inflection of verbs
appears, but the infinitive is generally used for imperative; regular
and irregular verbs begin to be distinguished (171). Desire expressed by
infinitive. Numbering active; numerals confounded. Eight hundred and
seventy-eighth day, nine-pins counted "one, one, one," etc. (172).
Questioning increases; "too much" is confounded with "too little." Yet
memory gains (173). Sounds of animals well remembered. Slow progress in
articulation (174).

_Feeling of Self._--Personal pronoun in place of his own name; "me" but
not yet "I" (202).


THIRTIETH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--One hundred and twenty-sixth, one
hundred and twenty-seventh, and one hundred and twenty-eighth weeks,
four trials with single color at a time; 75 right, 34 wrong. Eight
hundred and ninety-eighth day, every color rightly named; some guessing
on blue and green (16).

_Interpretation of what is seen._--Persistent desire daily to "write"
locomotives (66).

HEARING.--While eating, by chance puts hand to ear while kettle of
boiling water stood before him; notices diminution in force of sound
(88).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--Mounting a staircase without help; ten days
later with hands free (280, 281).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Independent activity of thought. When language fails, he
considers well (174). Deliberation without words; concepts formed.
Intellectual advance shown in first intentional use of language (175).
Only interrogative word is still "Where?" "I" does not appear, but "me"
is used. Sentences independently applied (176). More frequent use of the
plural in nouns; of the article; of the strong inflection; auxiliaries
omitted or misemployed. Twofold way of learning correct pronunciation
(177). Memory for words denoting objects good; right and left confounded
(178).


THIRTY-FIRST MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--Nine hundred and thirty-fourth day,
child says he can not tell green and blue. Green mostly called gray;
blue, violet (17).

FEELING.--_Sensibility to Temperature._--Child laughs joyously in cold
bath (115).

WILL.

Weakness of will shown by ceasing to eat when told that he has had
enough (344).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Onomatopoeia: imitation of locomotive-whistle (91). Two new
questions. Indefinite article more frequent. Individual formations of
words, as comparative of "high"; "key-watch." Confounding of "to-day"
and "yesterday" (178). Forming of sentences imperfect. Reporting of
faults. Calls things "stupid" when he is vexed by them. Changes
occupation frequently. Imitation less frequent. Singing in sleep. "Sch"
not yet pronounced (179).

_Feeling of Self._--Causing change in objects, pouring water into and
out of vessels (193). Laughing at image of self in mirror (201).


THIRTY-SECOND MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--One hundred and thirty-eighth and a
few previous weeks, six trials, child taking colors and naming them;
right 119, wrong, 38 (16, 17). Green and blue called "nothing at all."
Unknown colors named green; leaves of roses called "nothing," as are
whitish colors. One hundred and thirty-eighth and one hundred and
thirty-ninth weeks, three trials; right, 93, wrong, 39 (17, 18). Green
begins to be rightly named, blue less often (18).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--"I" begins to displace the name of child. Sentence correctly
applied. Clauses formed. Particle separated in compound verbs. Longer
names and sentences distinctly spoken, but the influence of dialect
appears (180). Memory improved, but fastidious; good for what is
interesting and intelligible to child (181).

_Feeling of Self._--Fourfold designation of self (202).


THIRTY-THIRD MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--One hundred and thirty-ninth, one
hundred and forty-first, and one hundred and forty-sixth weeks, took
colors of his own accord and named them; result of three trials, 66
right, 19 wrong (18).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Fear of even smallest dog (168).

INTELLECT.

Understanding that violations of well-known precepts have unpleasant
consequences (21).

_Speech._--Strength of memory shown in characteristic remarks Narrative
of feeding fowls (181). Interest in animals and other moving objects;
lack of clearness in concepts of animal and machine; meaning of word
"father" includes also "uncle"; selfhood more sharply manifested.
Confounds "too much" with "too little," etc. (182).

_Feeling of Self._--"I" especially used in "I want that," etc. (202).


THIRTY-FOURTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--"Green" rightly applied to leaves
and grass (18). Order in which colors are rightly named up to this time;
right, one thousand and forty-four; wrong, four hundred and forty-two:
right, 70.3 per cent; wrong, 29.7. Yellow and red much sooner named
rightly than green and blue (19).

WILL.

_Instinctive Movements._--First gymnastic exercises (281).

_Expressive Movements._--Kissing an expression of thankfulness (306).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Repeating, for fun, expressions heard. Calls, without
occasion, the name of the nurse; calls others by her name, sometimes
correcting himself. Seldom speaks of himself in third person; gradually
uses "Du" in address; uses "What?" in a new way. One thousand and
twenty-eighth day, "Why?" first used; instinct of causality expressed in
language (183). Questioning repeated to weariness. Articulation
perfected, with some exceptions (184).

_Feeling of Self._--Repeats the "I" heard, meaning by it "you" (202).


THIRTY-FIFTH MONTH.

WILL.

_Reflex Movements._--Responsive movement in sleeping child (221).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Fondness for singing increases; pleasure in compass and power
of his voice (185).


THIRTY-SIXTH MONTH.

SENSES.

HEARING.--Musical notes C, D, E, could not be rightly named by child, in
spite of teaching (90).

INTELLECT.

"When?" not used until close of the third year (184). Great pleasure in
singing, but imitation here not very successful, though surprisingly so
in regard to speech. Grammatical errors more rare. Long sentences
correctly but slowly formed. Ambition manifested in doing things without
help (185).

Invention in language rare. Participles well used (186).


THIRTY-SEVENTH MONTH.

SENSES.

SIGHT.--_Discrimination of Colors._--Colors named correctly except very
dark or pale ones (21).

ORGANIC SENSATIONS AND EMOTIONS.--Night's sleep from eleven to twelve
hours; day-naps no longer required (163). Fear (in sleep) of pigs (168).

INTELLECT.

_Speech._--Child's manner of speaking approximates more and more rapidly
to that of the family (186).


FORTIETH MONTH.

INTELLECT.

_Feeling of Self._--Fortieth month, pleased with his shadow (201).




THE MIND OF THE CHILD.

THIRD PART.

_DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECT._


The development of the intellect depends in so great measure upon the
modification of innate endowments through natural environment and
education, even before systematic instruction begins, and the methods of
education are so manifold, that it is at present impossible to make a
complete exposition of a normal intellectual development. Such an
exposition would necessarily comprise in the main two stages:

1. The _combination_ of sensuous _impressions_ into _perceptions_
(Wahrnehmungen); which consists essentially in this--that the sensation,
impressing itself directly upon our experience, is by the intellect, now
beginning to act, co-ordinated in space and time.

2. The _combination_ of _perceptions_ into _ideas_; in particular into
_sense-intuitions_ and _concepts_. A sense-intuition (Anschauung) is a
perception together with its cause, the object of the sensation; a
concept (Begriff) results from the union of the previously separated
perceptions, which are then called separate marks or qualities.

The investigation of each of these stages in the child is in itself a
great labor, which an individual may indeed begin upon, but can not
easily carry through uniformly in all directions.

I have indeed tried to collect recorded facts, but have found only
very little trustworthy material, and accordingly I confine myself
essentially to my own observations on my child. These are not merely
perfectly trustworthy, even to the minutest details (I have left out
everything of a doubtful character), but they are the most
circumstantial ever published in regard to the intellectual
development of a child. But I have been acquainted with a sufficient
number of other children to be certain that the child observed by me
did not _essentially_ differ from other healthy and intelligent boys
in regard to the principal points, although the time at which
development takes place, and the rapidity of it, differ a good deal in
different individuals. Girls often appear to learn to speak earlier
than boys; but further on they seem to possess a somewhat inferior
capacity of development of the logical functions, or to accomplish
with less ease abstractions of a higher order; whereas in boys the
emotional functions, however lasting their reactions, are not so
delicately graduated as in girls.

Without regard to such differences, of which I am fully aware, the
following chapters treat exclusively of the development of purely
intellectual cerebral activity in both sexes during the first years.
I acknowledge, however, that I have found the investigation of the
influence of the affectional movements, or emotions, upon the
development of the intellect in the child during the first years
so difficult, that I do not for the present enter into details
concerning it.

The observations relate, first, to the non-dependence of the child's
intellect upon language; next, to the acquirement of speech; lastly,
to the development of the feeling of self, the "I"-feeling.




CHAPTER XVI.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD'S INTELLECT INDEPENDENTLY OF LANGUAGE.


A wide-spread prejudice declares, "Without language, no understanding"!
Subtile distinctions between understanding and reason have limited the
statement to the latter term. But even in the restricted form, "Without
verbal language, no reason," it is at least unproved.

_Is there any thinking without words?_ The question takes this shape.

Now, for the thinker, who has long since forgotten the time when he
himself learned to speak, it is difficult, or even impossible, to give a
decided answer. For the thinking person can not admit that he has been
thinking without words; not even when he has caught himself arriving at
a logical result without a continuity in his unexpressed thought. A
break occurred in the train. There was, however, a train of thought.
Breaks alone yield no thought; they arise only after words have been
associated with thoughts, and so they can by no means serve as evidence
of a thinking without words, although the ecstasy of the artist, the
profundity of the meta-physician, may attain the last degree of
unconsciousness, and a dash may interrupt the thought-text.

But the child not yet acquainted with verbal language, who has not been
prematurely artificialized by training and by suppression of his own
attempts to express his states of mind, who learns _of himself_ to
_think_, just as he learns of himself to see and hear--such a child
shows plainly to the attentive observer that long before knowledge of
the word as a means of understanding among men, and long before the
first successful attempt to express himself in articulate words--nay,
long before learning the pronunciation of even a single word, he
combines ideas in a logical manner--i. e., he _thinks_. Thinking is,
it is true, "internal speech," but there is a speech without words.

Facts in proof of this have already been given in connection with
other points (Vol. I, pp. 88, 327, 328); others are given further on.

It will not be superfluous, however, to put together several
observations relating to the development of the childish intellect
without regard to the acquirement of speech; and to present them
separately, as a sort of introduction to the investigation of the
process of learning to speak.

Memory; a causative combination of the earliest recollections, or
memory-images; purposive, deliberate movements for the lessening of
individual strain--all these come to the child in greater or less
measure independently of verbal language. The, as it were, embryonic
logic of the child does not need words. A brief explanation of the
operation of these three factors will show this. Memory takes the
first place in point of time.

Without memory no intellect is possible. The only material at the
disposal of the intellect is received from the senses. It has been
provided solely out of sensations. Now a sensation in itself alone, as
a simple fundamental experience affecting primarily the one who has
the sensation, can not be the object of any intellectual operation
whatever. In order to make such activity possible there must be
several sensations: two of different kinds, of unequal strength; or
two of different kinds, of the same strength; or two of the same kind
unequally strong; in any case, two unlike sensations (cf. my treatise
"Elemente der reinen Empfindungslehre," Jena, 1876), if the lowest
activity of the intellect, _comparison_, is to operate. But because
the sensations that are to be compared can not all exist together,
recollection of the earlier ones is necessary (for the comparison);
that is, individual or personal memory.

This name I give to the memory formed by means of individual impressions
(occurrences, experiences) in contrast with the _phyletic_ memory, or
instinct, the memory of the race, which results from the inheritance of
the traces of individual experiences of ancestors; of this I do not here
speak.

All sensations leave traces behind in the brain; weak ones leave such as
are easy to be obliterated by others; strong ones, traces more enduring.

At the beginning of life it seems to be the department of taste (sweet)
and of smell (smell of milk) in which memory is first operative (Vol. I,
p. 124). Then comes the sense of touch (in nursing). Next in order the
sense of sight chiefly asserts itself as an early promoter of memory.
Hearing does not come till later.

If the infant, in the period from three to six months of age, is brought
into a room he has not before seen, his expression changes; he is
astonished. The new sensations of light, the different apportionment of
light and dark, arouse his attention; and when he comes back to his
former surroundings he is not astonished. These have lost the _stimulus
of novelty_--i. e., a certain _reminiscence_ of them has remained with
the child, they have _impressed_ themselves upon him.

Long before the thirtieth week, healthy children distinguish human faces
definitely from one another; first, the faces of the mother and the
nurse, then the face of the father, seen less often; and all three of
these from every strange face. Probably faces are the first thing
frequently perceived clearly by the eye. It has been found surprising
that infants so much earlier recognize human faces and forms, and follow
them with the gaze, than they do other objects. But human forms and
faces, being large, moving objects, awaken interest more than other
objects do; and on account of the manner of their movements, and because
they are the source from which the voice issues, are essentially
different from other objects in the field of vision. "In these movements
they are also characterized as a coherent whole, and the face, as a
whitish-reddish patch with the two sparkling eyes, is always a part of
this image that will be easy to recognize, even for one who has seen it
but a few times" (Helmholtz).

Hence the memory for faces is established earlier than that for other
visual impressions, and with this the ability to recognize members of
the family. A little girl, who does not speak at all, looks at pictures
with considerable interest in the seventh month, "and points meantime
with her little forefinger to the heads of the human figures" (Frau von
Strümpell).

My child in the second month could already localize the face and voice
of his mother, but the so-called knowing ("Erkennen") is a recognition
(Wiedererkennen) which presupposes a very firm _association of the
memory-images_. This fundamental function attached to the memory can
have but a slow development, because it demands an accumulation of
memory-images and precision in them.

In the second three months it is so far developed, at least, that
strange faces are at once known as strange, and are distinguished from
those of parents and nurse; for they excite astonishment or fear
(crying) while the faces of the latter do not. But the latter, if
absent, are not yet, at this period, missed by most children. Hence it
is worthy of note that a girl in her twelfth month recognized her
nurse after six days' absence, immediately, "with sobs of joy," as the
mother reports (Frau von Strümpell); another recognized her father,
after a separation of four days, even in the tenth month (Lindner).

In the seventh month my child did _not_ recognize his nurse, to whom
he had for months been accustomed, after an absence of four weeks.
Another child, however, at four months noticed at evening the absence
of his nurse, who had been gone only a day, and cried lustily upon the
discovery, looking all about the room, and crying again every time
after searching in vain (Wyma, 1881). At ten months the same child
used to be troubled by the absence of his parents, though he bore
himself with indifference toward them when he saw them again. At this
period a single nine-pin out of the whole set could not be taken away
without his noticing it, and at the age of a year and a half this
child knew at once whether one of his ten animals was missing or not.
In the nineteenth and twenty-first months my boy recognized his father
immediately from a distance, after a separation of several days, and
once after two weeks' absence; and in his twenty-third month his joy
at seeing again his playthings after an absence of eleven and a half
weeks (with his parents) was very lively, great as was the child's
forgetfulness in other respects at this period. A favorite toy could
often be taken from him without its being noticed or once asked for.
But when the child--in his eighteenth month--after having been
accustomed to bring to his mother two towels which he would afterward
carry back to their place, on one occasion had only one towel given
back to him, he came with inquiring look and tone to get the second.

This observation, which is confirmed by some similar ones, proves that
at a year and a half the memory for visual and motor ideas that belong
together was already well developed without the knowledge of the
corresponding words. But artificial associations of this sort need
continual renewing, otherwise they are soon forgotten; the remembrance
of them is speedily lost even in the years of childhood.

It is noteworthy, in connection with this, that what has been lately
acquired, e. g., verses learned by heart, can be recited more fluently
during sleep than in the waking condition. At the age of three years
and five months a girl recited a stanza of five lines on the occasion
of a birthday festival, not without some stumbling, but one night soon
after the birthday she repeated the whole of the rhymes aloud in her
sleep without stumbling at all (Frau von Strümpell).

It is customary, generally, to assume that the memory of adults does
not extend further back than to the fourth year of life. Satisfactory
observations on this point are not known to exist. But it is certainly
of the first consequence, in regard to the development of the faculty
of memory, whether the later experiences of the child have any
characteristic in common with the earlier experiences. For many of
these experiences no such agreement exists; nothing later on reminds
us of the once existing inability to balance the head, or of the
former inability to turn around, to sit, to stand, to walk, of the
inborn difficulty of hearing, inability to accommodate the eye, and to
distinguish our own body from foreign objects; hence, no man, and no
child, remembers these states. But this is not true of what is
acquired later. My child when less than three years old remembered
very well--and would almost make merry over himself at it--the time
when he could not yet talk, but articulated incorrectly and went
imperfectly through the first, often-repeated performances taught by
his nurse, "How tall is the child?" and "Where is the rogue?" If I
asked him, after he had said "Frühstücken" correctly, how he used to
say it, he would consider, and would require merely a suggestion of
accessory circumstances, in order to give the correct answer _Fritick_
and so with many words difficult to pronounce. The child of three and
even of four years can remember separate experiences of his second
year, and a person that will take the pains to remind him frequently
of them will be able easily to carry the recollections of the second
and third years far on into the more advanced years of childhood. It
is merely because no one makes such a useless experiment that older
children lose the memory-images of their second year. These fade out
because they are not combined with new ones.

At what time, however, the first natural association of a particular
idea with a new one that appears weeks or months later, takes place
without being called up by something in the mean time, is very hard to
determine. On this point we must first gather good observations out of
the second and third half-years, like the following:

"In the presence of a boy a year and a half old it was related that
another boy whom he knew, and who was then in the country far away,
had fallen and hurt his knee. No one noticed the child, who was
playing as the story was told. After some weeks the one who had fallen
came into the room, and the little one in a lively manner ran up to
the new-comer and cried, 'Fall, hurt leg!'" (Stiebel, 1865).

Another example is given by G. Lindner (1882): "The mother of a
two-year-old child had made for it out of a postal-card a sled
(Schlitten), which was destroyed after a few hours, and found its way
into the waste-basket. Just four weeks later another postal-card comes,
and it is taken from the carrier by the child and handed to the mother
with the words,'_Mamma, Litten!_' This was in summer, when there was
nothing to remind the child of the sled. Soon after the same wish was
expressed on the receipt of a letter also."

I have known like cases of attention, of recollection, and of
intelligence in the third year where they were not suspected. The
child, unnoticed, hears all sorts of things said, seizes on this or
that expression, and weeks after brings into connection, fitly or
unfitly, the memory-images, drawing immediately from an insufficient
number of particular cases a would-be general conclusion.

Equally certain with this fact is the other, less known or less
noticed, that, _even before the first attempts at speaking, such a
generalizing and therefore concept-forming combination of
memory-images regularly takes place_.

All children in common have inborn in them the ability to combine all
sorts of sense-impressions connected with food, when these appear
again individually, with one another, or with memory-images of such
impressions, so that adaptive movements suited to the obtaining of
fresh food arise as the result of this association. In the earlier
months these are simple and easier to be seen, and I have given
several examples (Vol. I, pp. 250, 260, 329, 333). Later such
movements, through the perfecting of the language of gesture and the
growth of this very power of association, become more and more
complicated: e. g., in his sixteenth month my boy saw a closed box,
out of which he had the day before received a cake; he at once made
with his hands a begging movement, yet he could not speak a word. In
the twenty-first month I took out of the pocket of a coat which was
hanging with many others in the wardrobe a biscuit and gave it to the
child. When he had eaten it, he went directly to the wardrobe and
looked in the right coat for a second biscuit. At this period also the
child can not have been thinking in the unspoken words, "Get
biscuit--wardrobe, coat, pocket, look," for he did not yet know the
words.

Even in the sixth month an act of remarkable _adaptiveness_ was once
observed, which can not be called either accidental or entirely
voluntary, and if it was fully purposed it would indicate a
well-advanced development of understanding in regard to food without
knowledge of words. When the child, viz., after considerable
experience in nursing at the breast, discovered that the flow of milk
was less abundant, he used to place his hand hard on the breast as if
he wanted to force out the milk by pressure. Of course there was here
no insight into the causal connection, but it is a question whether
the firm laying on of the little hand was not repeated for the reason
that the experience had been once made accidentally, that after doing
this the nursing was less difficult.

On the other hand, an unequivocal complicated act of deliberation
occurred in the seventeenth month. The child could not reach his
playthings in the cupboard, because it was too high for him; he ran
about, brought a traveling-bag, got upon it, and took what he wanted.
In this case he could not possibly think in words, since he did not
yet know words.

My child tries further (in the nineteenth and twentieth months) in a
twofold fashion to make known his eager wish to leave the room, not
being as yet able to speak. He takes any cloth he fancies and brings
it to me. I put it about him, he wraps himself in it, and, climbing
beseechingly on my knee, makes longing, pitiful sounds, which do not
cease until after I have opened a door through which he goes into
another room. Then he immediately throws away the cloth and runs about
exulting.

The other performance is this: When the child feels the need of
relieving his bowels, he is accustomed to make peculiar grunting
sounds, by means of a strain of the abdomen, shutting the mouth and
breathing loud, by jerks, through the nose. He is then taken away.
Now, if he is not suited with the place where he happens to be, at any
time, he begins to make just such sounds. If he is taken away, no such
need appears at all, but he is in high glee. Here is the expectation,
"I shall be taken away if I make that sound."

Whether we are to admit, in addition, an intentional _deception_ in this
case, or whether only a logical process takes place, I can not decide.
In the whole earlier and later behavior of the child there is no ground
for the first assumption, and the fact that he employs this artifice
while in his carriage, immediately after he has been waited on, is
directly against it.

To how small an extent, some time previous to this, perceptions were
made use of _to simplify his own exertions_, i. e., were combined and
had motor effect, appears from an observation in the sixteenth month.
Earlier than this, when I used to say, "Give the ring," I always laid an
ivory ring, that was tied to a thread, before the child, on the table. I
now said the same thing--after an interval of a week--while the same
ring was hanging near the chair by a red thread a foot long, so that the
child, as he sat on the chair, could just reach it, but only with much
pains. He made a grasp now, upon getting the sound-impression "ring,"
not at the thread, which would have made the seizure of the ring,
hanging freely, very easy for him, but directly at the ring hanging far
below him, and gave it to me. And when the command was repeated, it did
not occur to him to touch the thread.

It is likewise a sign of small understanding that the mouth is always
opened in smelling of a fragrant flower or perfume (Vol. I, p. 135).
Deficiencies of this kind are, indeed, quite logical from the standpoint
of childish experience. Because, at an earlier period the pleasant smell
(of milk) always came in connection with the pleasant taste, therefore,
thinks the child, in every case where there is a pleasant smell there
will also be something that tastes good. The common or collective
concept _taste-smell_ had not yet (in the seventeenth month) been
differentiated into the concepts taste and smell.

In the department of the sense of hearing the differentiation generally
makes its appearance earlier; memory, as a rule, later. Yet children
whose talent for music is developed early, retain _melodies_ even in
their first year of life. A girl to whom some of the Froebel songs were
sung, and who was taught appropriate movements of the hands and feet,
always performed the proper movement when one of the melodies was merely
hummed, or a verse was said (in the thirteenth month), without
confounding them at all. This early and firm association of sound-images
with motor-images is possible only when interest is attached to it--i. e.,
when the attention has been directed often, persistently, and with
concentration, upon the things to be combined. Thus, this very child (in
the nineteenth month), when her favorite song, "Who will go for a
Soldier?" ("Wer will unter die Soldaten?") was sung to her, could not
only join in the rhyme at the end of the verse, but, no matter where a
stop was made, she would go on, in a manner imperfect, indeed, but
easily intelligible (Frau Dr. Friedemann).

Here, however, in addition to memory and attention, heredity is to be
considered; since such a talent is wholly lacking in certain families,
but in others exists in all the brothers and sisters.

In performances of this kind, a superior understanding is not by any
means exhibited, but a stronger memory and faculty of association. These
associations are not, however, of a logical sort, but are habits
acquired through training, and they may even retard the development of
the intellect if they become numerous. For they may obstruct the
formation, at an early period, of independent ideas, merely on account
of the time they claim. Often, too, these artificial associations are
almost useless for the development of the intellect. They are too
special. On this ground I am compelled to censure the extravagancies,
that are wide-spread especially in Germany, of the Froebel methods of
occupying young children.

The _logic of the child_ naturally operates at the beginning with much
more extensive, and therefore less intensive, notions than those of
adults, with notions which the adult no longer forms. But the child does
not, on that account, proceed illogically, although he does proceed
awkwardly. Some further examples may illustrate.

The adult does not ordinarily try whether a door that he has just bolted
is fast; but the one-year-old child tests carefully the edge of the
door he has shut, to see whether it is really closed, because he does
not understand the effect of lock and bolt. For even in the eighteenth
month he goes back and forth with a key, to the writing-desk, with the
evident purpose of opening it. But at twelve months, when he tries
whether it is fast, he does not think of the key at all, and does not
yet possess a single word.

An adult, before watering flowers with a watering-pot, will look to see
whether there is water in it. The child of a year and a half, who has
seen how watering is done, finds special pleasure in going from flower
to flower, even with an empty watering-pot, and making the motions of
pouring upon each one separately, as if water would really come out. For
him the notion "watering-pot" is identical with the notion "filled
watering-pot," because at first he was acquainted with the latter only.

Much of what is attributed to imagination in very young children rests
essentially on the formation of such vague concepts, on the inability to
combine constant qualities into sharply defined concepts. When, in the
twenty-third month, the child holds an empty cup to his mouth and sips
and swallows, and does it repeatedly, and with a serene, happy
expression, this "play" is founded chiefly on the imperfect notion
"filled cup." The child has so often perceived something to drink,
drinking-vessel, and the act of drinking, in combination with one
another, that the one peremptorily demands the other when either appears
singly; hence the pleasure in pouring out from empty pitchers into empty
cups, and in drinking out of empty cups (in second to fifth years).
When adults do the same in the play of the theatre, this action always
has a value as language, it signifies something for other persons; but
with the child, who plays in this fashion entirely alone, the pleasure
consists in the production of familiar ideas together with agreeable
feelings, which are, as it were, crystallized with comparative clearness
out of the dull mass of undefined perceptions. These memory-images
become real existences, like the hallucinations of the insane, because
the sensuous impressions probably impress themselves directly--without
reflection--upon the growing brain, and hence the memory-images of them,
on account of their vividness, can not always be surely distinguished
from the perceptions themselves. Most of the plays that children invent
of themselves may be referred to this fact; on the other hand, the play
of hide-and-seek (especially in the seventeenth and eighteenth months),
and, nearly allied to this, the hunting after scraps of paper, bits of
biscuit, buttons, and other favorite objects (in the fifteenth month),
constitute an intellectual advance.

By practice in this kind of seeking for well-known, purposely concealed
objects, the intelligence of little children can easily be increased to
an astonishing degree, so that toward the end of the second year they
already understand some simple tricks of the juggler; for example,
making a card disappear. But after I had discontinued such exercises for
months, the ordinary capacity for being duped was again present.

This ease with which children can be deceived is to be attributed to
lack of experience far more than to lack of intelligence. When the child
of a year and a half offers leaves to a sheep or a stag, observes the
strange animal with somewhat timid astonishment, and a few days after
holds out some hastily plucked grass-blades to a chaffinch he sees
hopping across the road, supposing that the bird will likewise take them
from his hand and eat them--an observation that I made on my child
exactly as Sigismund did on his--it is not right to call such an act
"stupid"; the act shows ignorance--i. e., inexperience--but it is not
illogical. The child would be properly called stupid only in case he did
not _learn_ the difference between the animals fed. When, on the other
hand, the child of two and a half years, entirely of his own accord,
holds a watch first to his left ear, then to his right, listens both
times, and then says, "The watch goes, goes too!" then, pointing with
his finger to a clock, cries with delight, "The clock goes too," we
rightly find in such independent induction a proof of intellect. For the
swinging of the pendulum and the ticking had indeed often been
perceived, but to connect the notion of a "going clock" with the visible
but noiseless swinging, just as with the audible but invisible ticking
of the watch, requires a pretty well advanced power of abstraction.

That the ability to _abstract_ may show itself, though imperfectly, even
in the first year, is, according to my observations, certain. Infants
are struck by a quality of an object--e. g., the white appearance of
milk. The "taking away" or "abstracting" then consists in the isolating
of this quality out of innumerable other sight-impressions and the
blending of the impressions into a concept. The _naming_ of this, which
begins months later, by a rudimental word, like _mum_, is an outward
sign of this abstraction, which did not at all lead to the formation of
the concept, but followed it, as will be shown in detail further on (in
the two following chapters).

It would be interesting to collect observations concerning this
reasoning power in the very earliest period, because at that time
language does not interfere to help or to hinder. But it is just such
observations that we especially lack. When a child in the twelfth month,
on hearing a watch for the first time, cries out, "Tick-tick," looking
meantime at the clock on the wall, he has not, in doing this, "formed,"
as G. Lindner supposes, "his first concept, although a vague and empty
one as yet," but he had the concept before, and has now merely given a
name to it for the first time.

The first observation made in regard to his child by Darwin, which
seemed to him to prove "a sort of practical reflection," occurred on the
one hundred and forty-fourth day. The child grasped his father's finger
and drew it to his mouth, but his own hand prevented him from sucking
the finger. The child then, strangely enough, instead of entirely
withdrawing his hand, slipped it along the finger so that he could get
the end of the finger into his mouth. This proceeding was several times
repeated, and was evidently not accidental but intentional. At the age
of five months, associations of ideas arose independently of all
instruction. Thus, e. g., the child, being dressed in hat and cloak, was
very angry if he was not at once taken out of doors.

How strong the _reasoning power without_ words may be at a later period,
the following additional observations show:

From the time when my child, like Sigismund's (both in the fifteenth
month), had burned his finger in the flame of the candle, he could not
be induced to put his finger near the flame again, but he would
sometimes put it in fun toward the flame without touching it, and he
even (eighteen months old) carried a stick of wood of his own accord to
the stove-door and pushed it in through the open slide, with a proud
look at his parents. There is surely something more than an imitation
here.

Further, my child at first never used to let his mouth and chin be wiped
without crying; from the fifteenth month on he kept perfectly quiet
during the disagreeable operation. He must have noticed that this was
finished sooner when he was quiet.

The same thing can be observed in every little child, provided he is not
too much talked to, punished, yielded to, or spoiled. In the nineteenth
month it happened with my child that he resisted the command to lie down
in the evening. I let him cry, and raise himself on his bed, but did not
take him up, did not speak to him, did not use any force, but remained
motionless and watchful near by. At last he became tired, lay down, and
fell asleep directly. Here he acquired an understanding of the
uselessness of crying in order to avoid obedience to commands.

The _knowledge_ of right (what is allowed and commanded) and of wrong
(what is forbidden) had been long since acquired. In the seventeenth
month, e. g., a sense of cleanliness was strongly developed, and later
(in the thirty-third month) the child could not, without lively protest,
behold his nurse acting contrary to the directions that had been given
to himself--e. g., putting the knife into her mouth or dipping bread
into the milk. Emotions of this kind are less a proof of the existence
of a sense of duty than of the _understanding_ that violations of
well-known precepts have unpleasant consequences--i. e., that certain
actions bring in their train pleasant feelings, while other acts bring
unpleasant feelings. How long before the knowledge of words these
emotions began to exist I have, unfortunately, not succeeded in
determining.

But in many of the above cases--and they might without difficulty be
multiplied by diligent observation--there is not the least indication of
any influence of spoken words. Whether no attempt at speaking has
preceded, or whether a small collection of words may have been made, the
cases of child-intelligence adduced in this chapter, observed by myself,
prove that without knowledge of verbal language, and independently of
it, the logical activity of the child attains a high degree of
development, and no reason exists for explaining the intelligent actions
of children who do not yet speak at all--i. e., do not yet clothe their
ideas in words, but do already combine them with one another--as being
different specifically from the intelligent (not instinctive) actions of
sagacious orangs and chimpanzees. The difference consists far more in
this, that the latter can not form so many, so clear, and so abstract
conceptions, or so many and complicated combinations of ideas, as can
the gifted human child in the society of human beings--_even before he
has learned to speak_. When he has learned to speak, then the gap widens
to such an extent that what before was in some respects almost the
equal of humanity seems now a repulsive caricature of it.

In order, then, to understand the real difference between brute and man,
it is necessary to ascertain how a child and a brute animal may have
ideas without words, and may combine them for an end: whether it is
done, e. g., with memory-images, as in dreaming. And it is necessary
also to investigate the _essential character of the process of learning
to speak_.

Concerning the first problem, which is of uncommon psychogenetic
interest and practical importance, a solution seems to be promised in
the investigation of the formation of concepts in the case of those born
deaf, the so-called deaf and dumb children. On this point I offer first
the words of a man of practical experience.

The excellent superintendent of the Educational Institute for the Deaf
and Dumb in Weimar, C. Oehlwein (1867), well says:

"The deaf-mute in his first years of life looks at, turns over, feels of
objects that attract him, on all sides, and approaches those that are at
a distance. By this he receives, like the young child who has all his
senses, sensations and sensuous ideas;[C] and from the objects
themselves he apprehends a number of qualities, which he compares with
one another or with the qualities of other objects, but always refers to
the object which at the time attracts him. Herein he has a more correct
or less correct sense-intuition of this object, according as he has
observed, compared, and comprehended more or less attentively. As this
object has affected him through sight and feeling, so he represents it
to other persons also by characteristic signs for sight and indirectly
for feeling also. He shapes or draws a copy of the object seen and felt
with life and movement. For this he avails himself of the means that
Nature has placed directly within human power--the control over the
movement of the facial muscles, over the use of the hands, and, if
necessary, of the feet also. These signs, _not obtained from any one's
suggestion_, self-formed, which the deaf-mute employs directly in his
representation, are, as it were, the given outline of the image which he
has found, and they stand therefore in the closest relation to the inner
constitution of the individual that makes the representation.

"But we find not only that the individual senses of the deaf-mute, his
own observation and apprehension, are formative factors in the
occurrences of sensation and perception, as is of course the case, but
that the qualities of the objects observed by him, and associated,
according to his individual tendencies, are also raised by him, through
comparison, separation, grouping--through his own act, therefore--to
general ideas, concepts, although as yet imperfect ones, and they are
named and recognized again by peculiar signs intelligible to himself.

"But in this very raising of an idea to a general idea, to a concept--a
process connected with the forming of a sign--is manifested the
influence of the lack of hearing and of speech upon the psychical
development of the deaf-mute. It appears at first to be an advantage
that the sign by which the deaf-mute represents an idea is derived from
the impression, the image, the idea, which the user of the sign himself
has or has had; he expresses by the sign nothing foreign to him, but
only what has become his own. But this advantage disappears when
compared with the hindrance caused by this very circumstance in the
raising of the individual idea to a general idea, for the fact that the
latter is designated by the image, or the elements of the image in which
the former consists, is no small obstacle to it in attaining complete
generality. The same bond that unites the concept with the conceiver
binds it likewise to one of the individual ideas conceived--e. g., when,
by pointing to his own flesh, his own skin, he designates the concept
flesh, skin (in general also the flesh or the skin of animals); whereas,
by means of the word, which the child who has all his senses is obliged
to learn, a constraint is indeed exercised as something foreign, but a
constraint that simply enforces upon his idea the claim of generality.

"One example more. The deaf-mute designates the concept, or general
idea, 'red' by lightly touching his lips. With this sign he indicates
the red of the sky, of paintings, of dress-stuffs, of flowers, etc.
Thus, in however manifold connection with other concepts his concept
'red' may be repeated, it is to him as a concept always _one_ and the
same only. It is _common_ to _all_ the connections in which it
repeatedly occurs."

But before the thinking deaf-mute arrived at the concept "red," he
formed for himself the ideas "lip, dress, sky, flower," etc.

For a knowledge of intellectual development in the child possessed of
all the senses, and of the great extent to which he is independent of
verbal language in the formation of concepts, it is indispensable to
make a collection of such concepts as uneducated deaf-mutes not
acquainted either with the finger-alphabet or with articulation express
by means of their own gestures in a manner intelligible to others. Their
language, however, comprises "not only the various expressive changes of
countenance (play of feature), but also the varied movements of the
hands (gesticulations), the positions, attitudes, bearing, and movements
of the other parts of the entire body, through which the deaf-mute
naturally, i. e., _untouched by educational influences_, expresses his
ideas and conceptions." But I refrain from making such a catalogue here,
as we are concerned with the fact that _many concepts are, without any
learning of words whatever, plainly expressed and logically combined
with one another_, and their correctness is proved by the conduct of any
and every untaught child born deaf. Besides, such a catalogue, in order
to possess the psychogenetic value desired by me, needs a critical
examination extremely difficult to carry through as to whether the
"educational influences" supposed to be excluded are actually wholly
excluded in all cases as they really are in some cases, e. g., in regard
to food.

   Degerando (1827) has enumerated a long list of concepts, which
   deaf-mutes before they are instructed represent by pantomimic
   gesture. Many of these forms of expression in French deaf-mutes are
   identical with those of German. It is most earnestly to be wished
   that this international language of feature and gesture used by
   children entirely uninstructed, born deaf, may be made accessible to
   psycho-physiological and linguistic study by means of pictorial
   representations--photographic best of all. This should be founded on
   the experiences of German, French, English, Russian, Italian, and
   other teachers of deaf-mutes.

For there is hardly a better proof that thinking is not dependent on the
language of words than the conduct of deaf-mutes, who express, indeed,
many more concepts of unlike content in the same manner than any verbal
language does--just as children with all their senses do before they
possess a satisfactory stock of words--but who, by gesticulation and
pantomime before receiving any instruction, demonstrate that concepts
are formed without words.

With reference to the manner in which uneducated deaf-mutes speak, the
following examples are characteristic performances in gesture-language:

One deaf-mute asks another, "Stay, go you?" (look of inquiry). Answer:
"Go, I" (i. e., "Do you stay or go?" "I go"). "Hunter hare shoots."

"Arm, man, be strong," means, "The man's arm is strong."

"N., spectacles, see," means, "N. sees with the spectacles."

"Run I finished, go to sleep," means, "When I had finished running, I
went to sleep." "Money, you?" means, "Have you money?"

One of the most interesting sights I know of, in a psychological and
physiological point of view, is a conversation in gesture and pantomime
between two or three children born totally deaf, who do not know that
they are observed. I am indebted to Director Oehlwein, of Weimar, for
the opportunity of such observations, as also for the above questions
and answers. Especially those children (of about seven years) not yet
instructed in articulation employ an astonishing number of looks and
gestures, following one upon another with great rapidity, in order to
effect an understanding with one another. They understand one another
very easily, but, because their gestures, and particularly their
excessively subtilized play of feature, do not appear in ordinary life,
these children are just as hard to understand for the uninitiated as are
men who speak a wholly foreign language without any gestures. Even the
eye of the deaf-mute has a different expression from that of the person
who talks. The look seems more "interested," and manifestly far fewer
unnecessary movements of the eyes and contractions of the facial muscles
are made by the deaf-mute than by the child of the same age who has his
hearing.

Further, deaf-mutes, even those of small ability, imitate all sorts of
movements that are plainly visible much better, in general, than do
persons with all their senses. I made, in presence of the children,
several not very easy crossings of the fingers, put my hands in
different positions, and the like--movements that they could not ever
have seen--and I was surprised that some of the children at once made
them deftly, whereas ordinary children, first consider a long time, and
then imitate clumsily. It is doubtless this exaltation of the imitative
functions in deaf-mute children which makes it appear as if they
themselves invented their gestures (see above, p. 23). Certainly they do
not get their first signs through "any one's suggestion," they form them
for themselves, but, so far as I see, only through imitation and the
hereditary expressive movements. The signs are in great part themselves
unabridged imitations. The agreement, or "convention," which many
teachers of deaf-mutes assume, and which would introduce an entirely
causeless, not to say mysterious, principle, consists in this, that all
deaf-mutes in the beginning imitate the same thing in the same way.
Thus, through this perfectly natural accord of all, it comes to pass
that they understand one another. When they have gained ideas, then they
combine the separate signs in manifold ways, as one who speaks combines
words, in order to express new ideas; they become thereby more and more
difficult to be understood, and often are only with difficulty
understood even among themselves; and they are able only in very limited
degree to form concepts of a higher order. "Nothing, being dead,
space"--these are concepts of a very high order for them.

For this reason it is easy to comprehend that a deaf-mute child,
although he has learned but few words through instruction in
articulation, weaves these continually into his pantomimic
conversation in place of his former elaborate gestures. I observed
that individual children, born totally deaf, preferred, even in
conversation with one another, and when ignorant of the fact that I
was observing them, the articulate words just learned, although these
were scarcely intelligible, to their own signs.

Thus mighty is the charm of the spoken word, even when the child does
not himself hear it, but merely feels it with his tongue.

But the schooling the deaf-mute must go through in order to become
acquainted with the sensations of sight, touch, and movement that go
with the sound, is unspeakably toilsome.

W. Gude says in his treatise, remarkable alike for acuteness and
clearness, "Principles and Outlines of the Exposition of a Scheme of
Instruction for an Institution for Deaf-Mutes" ("Grundsätze und
Grundzüge zur Aufstellung eines Lehrplans für eine Taubstummen-Anstalt,"
1881): "The utterances of tones and of articulate sounds called forth by
involuntary stimulus during the first years, in deaf-mutes, are such
unimportant motor phenomena that they are not immediately followed by a
motor sensation. But when the deaf-mute child is more awake mentally, he
perceives that his relatives make movements of the mouth in their
intercourse, and repeated attempts of those about him to make themselves
intelligible by pronouncing certain words to him are not entirely
without effect upon the deaf-mute that is intellectually active. When
such deaf-mutes now direct their attention to the matter, they succeed
in regard to only a part of the sounds--those that are conspicuous to
the eye in their utterance--in getting a tolerable imitation. Individual
deaf-mutes go so far, in fact, as to understand various words correctly
without repeating them; others succeed gradually in repeating such words
as 'papa, mamma,' so that one can understand what is meant. Those who
are deaf-mutes from birth do not, however, of themselves, succeed in
imitating accurately other vocal sounds in general."

A deaf-mute, who had not been instructed, explained to Romanes, at a
later period when he had learned the sign-language, that he had before
thought in "images," which means nothing else than that he, in place of
the words heard (in our case) and the digital signs seen (in his case),
had made use of memory-images gained from visual impressions, for
distinguishing his concepts. Laura Bridgman, too, a person in general
the subject of very incorrect inferences, who was not blind and deaf
from birth, could form a small number of concepts that were above the
lowest grade. These originated from the materials furnished by the sense
of touch, the muscular sense and general sensibility, before she had
learned a sort of finger-language. But she had learned to speak somewhat
before she became dumb and blind. Children with sight, born deaf, seem
not to be able to perform the simplest arithmetical operations, e. g.,
214-96 and 908 X 70 (according to Asch, 1865), until after several years
of continuous instruction in articulate speaking. They do succeed,
however, and that without sound-images of words, and perhaps, too,
without sight-images of words; in mental arithmetic without knowledge of
written figures, by help of the touch-images of words which the tongue
furnishes.

In any case uneducated persons born deaf can count by means of the
fingers without the knowledge of figures; and, when they go beyond 10,
the notched stick comes to their aid (Sicard and Degerando).

The language of gesture and feature in very young children, born dumb
and not treated differently from other children, shows also, in most
abundant measure, that concepts are formed without words. The child born
deaf uses the primitive language of gesture to the same extent as does
the child that has his hearing; the former makes himself intelligible by
actions and sounds as the latter does, so that his deficiency is not
suspected. This natural language is also _understood_ by the child born
deaf, so far as it is recognizable by his eye. In the look and the
features of his mother he reads her mood. But he very early becomes
quiet and develops for himself, "out of unconscious gesticulation, the
gesture language, which at first is not conventional, nay, is not in the
strict sense quite a sign-language, but a mimetic-plastic representation
of the influences experienced from the external world," since the
deaf-mute imitates movements perceived, and the attitude of persons and
the position of objects. Upon this pantomime alone rests the possibility
of coming to an understanding, within a certain range, with deaf-mutes
that have had no instruction at all. It can not, therefore, in its
elementary form be conventional, as Hill, to whom I owe these data,
rightly maintains. He writes concerning the child born deaf: "His voice
seems just like that of other children. He screams, weeps, according as
he feels uncomfortable; he starts when frightened by any noise. Even
friendly address, toying, fun, serious threats, are understood by him as
early as by any child." But he does not hear his own voice; it is not
sound that frightens him, but the concussion; it is not the pleasant
word that delights him, but the pleasant countenance of his mother. "It
even happens, not seldom, that through encouragement to use the voice,
these children acquire a series of articulate sounds, and a number of
combinations of sounds, which they employ as the expression of their
wishes." They not only _point out_ the object desired, not only
_imitate_ movements that are to procure what they want, but they also
outline the forms of objects wished for. They are able to conduct
themselves so intelligently in this, that the deaf-mute condition is not
discovered till the second year, or even later, and then chiefly by
their use of the eye, because in case of distant objects only those seen
excite their attention.

From this behavior of infants born deaf it manifestly follows that even
without the possibility of natural imitation of sounds, and without the
knowledge of a single word, qualities may be blended with qualities into
concepts. Thus, _primitive thinking is not bound up with verbal
language_. It demands, however, a certain development of the cerebrum,
probably a certain very considerable number of ganglionic cells in the
cerebral cortex, that stand in firm organic connection with one another.
The difference between an uninstructed young deaf-mute and a cretin is
immense. The former can learn a great deal through instruction in
speaking, the latter can not. This very ability to learn, in the child
born deaf, is greater than in the normal child, in respect to pantomime
and gesture. If a child with his hearing had to grow up among
deaf-mutes, he would undoubtedly learn their language, and would in
addition enjoy his own voice without being able to make use of it; but
he would probably be discovered, further on, without testing his
hearing, by the fact that he was not quite so complete a master of this
gesture-language as the deaf-mutes, on account of the diversion of his
attention by sound.

The total result of the foregoing observations concerning the capacity
of accomplishment on the part of uneducated deaf-mutes in regard to the
natural language of gesture and feature, demonstrates more plainly than
any other fact whatever that, without words and without signs for words,
thought-activity exists--that thinking takes place when both words and
signs for words are wanting. Wherefore, then, should the logical
combination of ideas in the human being born perfect begin only with the
speaking of words or the learning to speak? Because the adult supposes
that he no longer thinks without words, he easily draws the erroneous
conclusion that no one, that not even he himself, could think before the
knowledge of verbal language. In truth, however, it was _not language
that generated the intellect; it is the intellect that formerly invented
language: and even now the new-born human being brings with him into the
world far more intellect than talent for language_.

FOOTNOTES:

[C] Empfindungsvorstellungen.




CHAPTER XVII.

LEARNING TO SPEAK.


No human being remembers how he learned his mother-tongue in early
youth, and the whole human race has forgotten the origin of its
articulate speech as well as of its gestures; but every individual
passes perceptibly through the stage of learning to speak, so that a
patient observer recognizes much as conformable to law.

The acquisition of speech belongs to those physiological problems which
can not be solved by the most important means possessed by physiology,
vivisection. And the speechless condition in which every human being is
born can not be regarded as a disease that may be healed by instruction,
as is the case with certain forms of acquired aphasia. A set of other
accomplishments, such as swimming, riding, fencing, piano-playing, the
acquirement of which is physiological, are learned like articulate
speech, and nobody calls the person that can not swim an anomaly on that
account. The _inability to appropriate_ to one's self these and other
co-ordinated muscular movements, this alone is abnormal. But we can not
tell in advance in the case of any new-born child whether he will learn
to speak or not, just as in the case of one who has suffered an
obstruction of speech or has entirely lost speech, it is not certain
whether he will ever recover it.

In this the normal child that does _not yet_ speak perfectly,
resembles the diseased adult who, for any cause, _no longer_ has
command of language. And to compare these two with each other is the
more important, as at present no other empirical way is open to us for
investigating the nature of the process of learning to speak; but this
way conducts us, fortunately, through pathology, to solid, important
physiological conclusions.

1. Disturbances of Speech in Adults.

The command of language comprises, on the one hand, the understanding of
what is spoken; on the other hand, the utterance of what is thought. It
is at the height of its performance in free, intelligible, connected
speech. Everything that disturbs the _understanding of words heard_ must
be designated disturbance of speech equally with everything that
disturbs _the production of words_ and sentences.

By means of excellent investigations made by many persons, especially by
Broca, Wernicke, Kussmaul, it has become possible to make a topical
division of most of the observed disturbances of speech of both kinds.
In the first class, which comprises the _impressive_ processes, we have
to consider every functional disturbance of the peripheral ear, of the
auditory nerve and of the central ends of the auditory nerve; in the
second class, viz., the _expressive_ processes, we consider every
functional disturbance of the apparatus required for articulation,
including the nerves belonging to this in their whole extent, in
particular the hypoglossus, as motor nerve of the tongue, and certain
parts of the cerebral hemispheres from which the nerves of speech are
excited and to which the sense-impressions from without are so conducted
by connecting fibers that they themselves or their memory-images can
call forth expressive, i. e., motor processes. The diagram, Fig. 1,
illustrates the matter.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

The peripheral ear _o_, with the terminations of the auditory nerve, is
by means of sensory fibers _a_, that are connected with the auditory
nerve, in connection with the storehouse of sound-impressions, K. This
is connected by means of the intercentral paths _v_ with the motor
speech-center M. From it go out special fibers of communication, _h_, to
the motor nerves of speech which terminate in the external instruments
of articulation, _z_.

The impressive nerve-path, _o_ _a_ K, is centripetal; the expressive,
M _h_ _z_, c